Carbon fibers are a key strategic material whose production must be independently guaranteed for national security reasons. Their fabrication into composites results in high-performance materials with added value. In this review, the development history as well as domestic and international research progress in carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites are briefly described from the viewpoints of the carbon fibers, the resin matrix and the interphase between fiber and matrix. Progress in the development of high-performance carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites in the Advanced Composites Center (ACC) at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (BUCT) is introduced, including the construction of new interphases and mechanisms of interfacial compatibility, key preparation technology for high-performance resin matrixes, and innovation and application of reinforced and toughened composites. The fabrication of “carbon fiber” admission certificates for new BUCT undergraduates is discussed in detail, including the synthesis and preparation of the epoxy matrix, preparation of the carbon fiber prepreg, lay-up design of the prepreg layer, composite sheet molding and surface printing. Finally, future development directions for carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites are discussed.