Rechargeable magnesium batteries are promising alternatives to traditional lithium batteries because of the high abundance of Mg compounds in earth crust, their low toxicity, and possible favorable properties as electrodes’ material. However, Mg metal anodes face several challenges, notably the natively existence of an inactive oxide layer on their surfaces, which reduces their effectiveness. Additionally, interactions of Mg electrodes with electrolyte solutions’ components can lead to the formation of insulating surface layers, that can fully block them for ions transport. This review addresses these issues by focusing on surface treatments strategies to enhance electrochemical performance of Mg anodes. It highlights chemical and physical modification techniques to prevent oxidation and inactive-layers formation, as well as their practical implications for MIBs. We also examined the impact of Mg anodes’ surface engineering on their electrochemical reversibility and cycling efficiency. Finally, future research directions to improve the performance and commercial viability of magnesium anodes and advance development of high-capacity, safe, and cost-effective energy storage systems based on magnesium electrochemistry are discussed.

Aqueous batteries are an emerging next-generation technology for large-scale energy storage. Among various metal-ion systems, manganese-based batteries have attracted significant interest due to their superior theoretical energy density over zinc-based battery systems. This study demonstrates oxygen vacancy-engineered vanadium oxide (V₂O_4.85) as a high-performance cathode material for aqueous manganese metal batteries. The V₂O_4.85 cathode had a discharge capacity of 212.6 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 A g⁻¹, retaining 89.5% capacity after 500 cycles. Oxygen vacancies enhanced ion diffusion and reduced migration barriers, facilitating both Mn²⁺ and H⁺ ion intercalation. Proton intercalation dominated charge storage, forming Mn(OH)₂ layers, whereas Mn²⁺ contributed to surface-limited reactions. Furthermore, manganese metal batteries had a significantly higher operating voltage than that of aqueous zinc battery systems. Despite challenges with hydrogen evolution reactions at the Mn metal anode, this study underscores the potential of manganese batteries for future energy storage systems.

Magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) are promising candidates for lithium-ion batteries because of their abundance, non-toxicity, and favorable electrochemical properties. This review explores the reaction mechanisms and electrochemical characteristics of Mg-alloy anode materials. While Mg metal anodes provide high volumetric capacity and dendrite-free electrodeposition, their practical application is hindered by challenges such as sluggish Mg²⁺ ion diffusion and electrolyte compatibility. Alloy-type anodes that incorporate groups XIII, XIV, and XV elements have the potential to overcome these limitations. We review various Mg alloys, emphasizing their alloying/dealloying reaction mechanisms, their theoretical capacities, and the practical aspects of MIBs. Furthermore, we discuss the influence of the electrolyte composition on the reversibility and efficiency of these alloy anodes. Emphasis is placed on overcoming current limitations through innovative materials and structural engineering. This review concludes with perspectives on future research directions aimed at enhancing the performance and commercial viability of Mg alloy anodes and contributing to the development of high-capacity, safe, and cost-effective energy storage systems.

Aqueous batteries with metal anodes exhibit robust anodic capacities, but their energy densities are low because of the limited potential stabilities of aqueous electrolyte solutions. Current metal options, such as Zn and Al, pose a dilemma: Zn lacks a sufficiently low redox potential, whereas Al tends to be strongly oxidized in aqueous environments. Our investigation introduces a novel rechargeable aqueous battery system based on Mn as the anode. We examine the effects of anions, electrolyte concentration, and diverse cathode chemistries. Notably, the ClO₄-based electrolyte solution exhibits improved deposition and dissolution efficiencies. Although stainless steel (SS 316 L) and Ni are stable current collectors for cathodes, they display limitations as anodes. However, using Ti as the anode resulted in increased Mn deposition and dissolution efficiencies. Moreover, we evaluate this system using various cathode materials, including Mn-intercalation-based inorganic (Ag_0.33V₂O₅) and organic (perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride) cathodes and an anion-intercalation-chemistry (coronene)-based cathode. These configurations yield markedly higher output potentials compared to those of Zn metal batteries, highlighting the potential for an augmented energy density when using an Mn anode. This study outlines a systematic approach for use in optimizing metal anodes in Mn metal batteries, unlocking novel prospects for Mn-based batteries with diverse cathode chemistries.