Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are increasingly recognized as significant contributors to anthropogenic climate change, primarily through the release of methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Current research on GHG quantification in WWTPs predominantly relies on estimated emission factors. However, this introduces substantial uncertainties in emission estimates due to limited in situ measurements and variability in quantification methods. Here we review advances in GHG measurement techniques, integrating literature data with our in situ studies. We show that unit-based methods, such as flux chambers and optical gas imaging, pinpoint emission hotspots in individual processes, while plant-integrated approaches—like tracer gas dispersion, mobile laboratories and aerial surveys—deliver comprehensive plant-scale estimates. These techniques reveal wide variability in emissions, with CH₄ rates spanning 0.04–427 kg h⁻¹ and N₂O up to 22.1 kg h⁻¹, but most studies are short-term, gas-specific and neglect fossil CO₂, which can inflate IPCC inventories by up to 22.8% upon inclusion. Technology- and plant-specific emission factors, calibrated via on-site data, markedly enhance accuracy by accounting for local factors like treatment processes and influent composition. We call for national emission inventories via long-term, multi-gas measurements, guiding targeted mitigation strategies and transforming WWTPs toward carbon-neutral, climate-smart infrastructures.

Wastewater treatment is an important source of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Yet large uncertainties remain in the quantification of GHG emissions from municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) in China. A high-resolution and technology-specific emission inventory is still lacking to support mitigation strategies of MWWTPs. Here we develop a plant-level and technology-based MWWTP emission inventory for China covering 8703 plants and 19 treatment technology categories by compiling and harmonizing the most up-to-date facility-level databases. China's methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from MWWTPs in 2020 are estimated to be 150.6 Gg and 22.0 Gg, respectively, with the uncertainty range of −30% to 37% and −30% to 26% at 95% confidence interval. We find an emission inequality across cities, with the richest cities emitting two times more CH₄ and N₂O per capita from municipal wastewater treatment than the poorest cities. The emitted CH₄ and N₂O are dominated by Anaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic-, Sequencing Batch Reactor-, Oxidation Ditch-, and Anoxic/Oxic-based MWWTPs of less than 20 years old. Considering the relatively young age structure of China's MWWTPs, the committed emissions highlight the importance of reducing on-site GHG emissions by optimization of operating conditions and innovation management. The emission differences among our estimates, previous studies, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change guidelines are largely attributed to the uncertainties in emission factors, implying the urgent need for more plant-integrated measurements to improve the accuracy of emission accounting.