Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is one of the most prevalent pathogens residing in the human stomach lining. H. pylori infection is closely linked to the development of numerous gastric and non-gastric disorders. Probiotics are viable microorganisms that contribute to host health when appropriately administered or consumed, while postbiotics are non-viable microbial products or metabolic byproducts that are stable in gastric acid, structurally defined, and considered safe. Probiotics and postbiotics have beneficial effects on H. pylori infection and have become a popular topic of anti-H. pylori research in recent years. This paper provides an overview of recent progress in: (1) the mechanisms underlying H. pylori infection; (2) probiotics and postbiotics in the fight against H. pylori; (3) challenges and limitations of probiotic interventions in H. pylori eradication as well as strategies to improve them; and (4) the potential benefits, key efficacies, and methods of extraction, purification, and analysis of postbiotics. These results offer a scientific foundation for the incorporation of probiotics and postbiotics in H. pylori treatment strategies.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive disease with high morbidity and mortality. Disturbed gut microbiota and toxin accumulation are the main pathologic features of CKD. Current treatments are limited to those that alleviate renal impairment in CKD patients, but few interventions are available that specifically target the regulatory mechanisms of gut microbiota. In this context, researchers urgently need new approaches that can significantly improve survival time and quality of life in these patients. In this review, we outline the involvement of the gut-kidney axis in kidney injury through disturbances of gut microbiota and dysregulation of endogenous metabolites, as well as the prominent contribution of gut microbiota in the discovery of CKD that can be used to prevent, diagnose, and treat CKD. Next, we describe several major metabolites associated with the host-gut microbiota that arise from the synthesis of microbial nutrient transformations and subsequent interactions with the kidney. Then, we summarize the role and potential targets of a compromised gut barrier in CKD. Finally, we discuss research advances in the prevention and treatments of CKD through probiotics modulation of gut microbiota structure to reduce enterogenous toxins and their maintenance of gut barrier function. A growing body of research suggests that intervention through probiotics may be a new and promising therapeutic strategy for CKD.