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Initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) has been widely adopted in battery research as a quantifiable indicator for the lifespan, energy density and rate performance of batteries. Hard carbon materials have been accepted as a promising anode family for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) owing to their outstanding performance. However, the booming application of hard carbon anodes has been significantly slowed by the low ICE, leading to a reduced energy density at the cell level. This offers a challenge to develop high ICE hard carbon anodes to meet the applications of high-performance SIBs. Here, we discuss the definition and factors of ICE and describe several typical strategies to improve the ICE of hard carbon anodes. The strategies for boosting the ICE of such anodes are also systematically categorized into several aspects including structure design, surface engineering, electrolyte optimization and pre-sodiation. The key challenges and perspectives in the development of high ICE hard carbon anodes are also outlined.
This work was supported by the National Key R & D Program of China (2018YFE0201701 and 2018YFA0209401), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant nos. 22088101, U21A20329, 21733003 and 21975050), the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (19JC1410700), and Program of Shanghai Academic Research Leader (21XD1420800).
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).