Electrochemical Characterization and Modulation of Biological Processes

Electrochemical processes lie at the core of biological function, governing energy transduction, metabolic flux, and molecular signaling. Recent advances in electrochemical science now allow these processes to be probed and controlled with unprecedented spatial, temporal, and chemical resolution. In this review, we present an integrated framework that progresses from fundamental mechanisms to analytical technologies and functional modulation. We begin by outlining electron transfer pathways in mitochondrial respiration, microbial extracellular electron transfer, and DNA- and protein-based charge conduction, followed by the principles of photon-electron conversion in photosynthesis and the central role of redox equilibrium in coordinating cellular responses. We then highlight electrochemical analytical strategies that enable multiscale biological characterization, including biosensing, electrochemical and scanning probe imaging, electrogenerated chemiluminescence detection, and measurements of membrane potentials and neurotransmitter dynamics. Emerging platforms such as flexible biointerfaces, ultramicroelectrodes, and nanopore systems further extend these capabilities to in vivo and single-molecule contexts. Finally, we discuss how electrochemical inputs can be used to regulate metabolic pathways, microbial and protein activities, and neural signaling, enabling precision therapeutic and bioengineering applications. Together, these developments establish electrochemistry as a powerful foundation for decoding and directing biological systems.