Impacts of microplastics exposure on the health and behavior of bees

Microplastics (MPs), as emerging environmental pollutants, pose a potential threat to ecosystem health due to their persistence and capacity to adsorb contaminants. Bees, as essential pollinators, are important for agriculture and ecological stability. However, the risks of MPs exposure to bee health require comprehensive evaluation. This review systematically summarizes the potential transmission routes of MPs within bee colonies. It focuses on their adverse effects on bee physiological health, including disruptions to survival, development, gut structure, gut microbial composition, and immune function. The potential influence of MPs on bee feeding behavior and cognitive performance is also discussed. Furthermore, the combined toxic effects of MPs with commonly used pesticides, coexisting pollutants, and pathogens are summarized, emphasizing the complex and multifactorial risks that MPs may pose to both individual bees and colony-level health through multiple pathways and mechanisms. Finally, key challenges in current research are identified, and future directions are proposed, including mechanistic studies of MP-induced ecotoxicity, refined exposure risk assessments, and integrated evaluations of ecological impacts. This review provides a scientific foundation for bee health protection and MP-related environmental risk assessment.