Non-genetic biointerfaces for programmable photoelectroceuticals

Light-responsive biointerfaces have emerged as a powerful strategy for modulating cellular and tissue electrophysiology without genetic modification. Over the past decade, advances in nanomaterials, optoelectronic device architectures, and biointerface engineering have enabled the development of non-genetic photostimulation systems capable of converting optical energy into electrical, electrochemical, or ionic stimuli for controlling excitable biological systems. Recent studies have demonstrated diverse material platforms—including semiconductor nanowires, quantum dots, organic optoelectronics, and biomolecular assemblies—that enable efficient phototransduction at the nano-bio interface. At the device level, innovations in soft optoelectronic interfaces, photovoltaic implants, and flexible bioelectronic scaffolds have expanded photostimulation from single-cell modulation to organ-scale control. Concurrently, emerging strategies for spatial and spatiotemporal programming of optical stimulation are enabling increasingly precise and multiplexed control of biological circuits. These developments are now accelerating the translation of photostimulation technologies toward clinical applications, including retinal prostheses, cardiac pacing, and minimally invasive bioelectronic therapies. In this Perspective, we discuss recent progress in materials and device aspects of non-genetic photostimulation, advances in spatially programmable optical biointerfaces, and emerging translational pathways toward photoelectroceuticals. We further highlight future opportunities in engineered tissues, biomolecular optoelectronics, and programmable biointerfaces that may enable next-generation therapeutic systems integrating nanotechnology, bioelectronics, and regenerative medicine.