Addressing the kinetic imbalance in electrocatalytic C–N coupling: Catalyst design for selective urea synthesis

Electrocatalytic synthesis of urea from CO₂ and NO₃⁻ provides a promising sustainable decarbonization pathway for fertilizer production. However, its efficiency is hindered by the sluggish C–N coupling kinetics and the intrinsic kinetic imbalance between gaseous CO₂ and aqueous NO₃⁻. To address these challenges, this review systematically summarizes recent advances in mechanistic studies and catalytic strategies aimed at resolving the kinetic imbalance in C–N coupling. We start by introducing fundamental parameters and potential mechanisms of electrocatalytic urea production by C–N coupling. Subsequently, we focus on catalyst design, detailing core strategies including dual-site synergy, tandem catalysis, dynamic active site engineering and spatial confinement effects, which collectively work to modulate reaction kinetics and promote the selective coupling of intermediates. Additionally, the design of electrolytes and reactors is crucial for optimizing the reaction environment. Although there is still a gap between current performance and industrial requirements, electrocatalytic urea synthesis holds enormous potential as a key pathway for achieving green fertilizer production and carbon neutrality. This potential can be realized through insights into control of scale and spatial structure, operational mechanisms, engineering of the reaction microenvironment, and the establishment of standardized evaluation protocols. Interdisciplinary collaboration and full-chain technological innovation are crucial for advancing this field toward practical applications.