Review Article
Open Access
Issue
Published:
30 March 2019
Open Access
Issue
Published:
30 March 2019
Can phantom limb pain be reduced/eliminated solely by techniques applied to peripheral nerves?
Cite this article:
Kuffler DP.
Can phantom limb pain be reduced/eliminated solely by techniques applied to peripheral nerves?.
Journal of Neurorestoratology,
2019, 7(1): 26-36.
https://doi.org/10.26599/JNR.2019.9040002
Download citation
468
Views
23
Downloads
Citations
1
Crossref
0
WoS
0
Scopus
N/A
CSCD
About 0.5% of the US population (1.7 million) is living with a lost limb and this number is expected to double by 2050. This number is much higher in other parts of the world. Within days to weeks of an extremity amputation, up to 80% of these individuals develop neuropathic pain presenting as phantom limb pain (PLP). The level of PLP increases significantly by one year and remains chronic and severe for about 10% of individuals. PLP has a serious negative impact on individuals’ lives. Current pain treatment therapies, such pharmacological approaches provide limited to no pain relief, some other techniques applied to the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) reduce or block PLP, but none produces long-term pain suppression. Therefore, new drugs or novel analgesic methods must be developed that prevent PLP from developing, or if it develops, to reduce the level of pain. This paper examines the potential causes of PLP, and present techniques used to prevent the development of PLP, or if it develops, to reduce the level of pain. Finally it presents a novel technique being developed that eliminates/reduces chronic neuropathic pain and which may induce the long-term reduction/elimination of PLP.
menu
Abstract
Full text
Outline
About this article
Can phantom limb pain be reduced/eliminated solely by techniques applied to peripheral nerves?
Abstract
About 0.5% of the US population (1.7 million) is living with a lost limb and this number is expected to double by 2050. This number is much higher in other parts of the world. Within days to weeks of an extremity amputation, up to 80% of these individuals develop neuropathic pain presenting as phantom limb pain (PLP). The level of PLP increases significantly by one year and remains chronic and severe for about 10% of individuals. PLP has a serious negative impact on individuals’ lives. Current pain treatment therapies, such pharmacological approaches provide limited to no pain relief, some other techniques applied to the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) reduce or block PLP, but none produces long-term pain suppression. Therefore, new drugs or novel analgesic methods must be developed that prevent PLP from developing, or if it develops, to reduce the level of pain. This paper examines the potential causes of PLP, and present techniques used to prevent the development of PLP, or if it develops, to reduce the level of pain. Finally it presents a novel technique being developed that eliminates/reduces chronic neuropathic pain and which may induce the long-term reduction/elimination of PLP.
Keywords:
chronic pain, phantom limb pain (PLP), platelet-rich plasma, amputation
References(116)
[1]
K Ziegler-Graham, EJ MacKenzie, PL Ephraim, et al. Estimating the prevalence of limb loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008, 89(3): 422–429.
[2]
PL Ephraim, ST Wegener, EJ MacKenzie, et al. Phantom pain, residual limb pain, and back pain in amputees: Results of a national survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005, 86(10): 1910–1919.
[3]
NB Finnerup, S Haroutounian, L Nikolajsen. The sodium- channel blocker lidocaine in subanesthetic concentrations reduces spontaneous and evoked pain in human painful neuroma. Scand J Pain. 2015, 8(1): 45–46.
[4]
H Flor. Phantom-limb pain: Characteristics, causes, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2002, 1(3): 182–189.
[5]
TS Jensen, B Krebs, J Nielsen, et al. Phantom limb, phantom pain and stump pain in amputees during the first 6 months following limb amputation. Pain. 1983, 17(3): 243–256.
[7]
L Nikolajsen, KF Christensen, S Haroutiunian. Phantom limb pain: Treatment strategies. Pain Manag. 2013, 3(6): 421–424.
[8]
L Nikolajsen, S Ilkjaer, K Kroner, et al. The influence of preamputation pain on postamputation stump and phantom pain. Pain. 1997, 72(3): 393–405.
[9]
MT Schley, P Wilms, S Toepfner, et al. Painful and nonpainful phantom and stump sensations in acute traumatic amputees. J Trauma. 2008, 65(4): 858–864.
[10]
A Ahmed, S Bhatnagar, S Mishra, et al. Prevalence of phantom limb pain, stump pain, and phantom limb sensation among the amputated cancer patients in india: A prospective, observational study. Indian J Palliat Care. 2017, 23(1): 24–35.
[11]
JC Bosmans, JH Geertzen, WJ Post, et al. Factors associated with phantom limb pain: A 31/2-year prospective study. Clin Rehabil. 2010, 24(5): 444–453.
[12]
L Nikolajsen. Postamputation pain: Studies on mechanisms. Dan Med J. 2012, 59(10): B4527.
[13]
WT Crow, DR Willis. Estimating cost of care for patients with acute low back pain: A retrospective review of patient records. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2009, 109(4): 229–233.
[14]
E Hsu, SP Cohen. Postamputation pain: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and treatment. J Pain Res. 2013, 6: 121–136.
[15]
SG Waxman. Neuroscience: Channelopathies have many faces. Nature. 2011, 472(7342): 173–174.
[16]
DM Desmond, M Maclachlan. Prevalence and characteristics of phantom limb pain and residual limb pain in the long term after upper limb amputation. Int J Rehabil Res. 2010, 33(3): 279–282.
[17]
H Flor, L Nikolajsen, JT Staehelin. Phantom limb pain: A case of maladaptive CNS plasticity? Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006, 7(11): 873–881.
[18]
U Kern, V Busch, M Rockland, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of phantom limb pain and phantom limb sensations in Germany. A nationwide field survey. Schmerz. 2009, 23(5): 479–488.
[19]
CR Jutzeler, A Curt, JL Kramer. Relationship between chronic pain and brain reorganization after deafferentation: A systematic review of functional MRI findings. Neuroimage Clin. 2018, 9: 599–606.
[20]
S Knecht, H Henningsen, T Elbert, et al. Cortical reorganization in human amputees and mislocalization of painful stimuli to the phantom limb. Neurosci Lett. 1995, 201(3): 262–264.
[21]
H Flor. Maladaptive plasticity, memory for pain and phantom limb pain: Review and suggestions for new therapies. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008, 8(5): 809–818.
[22]
AM Tan, OA Samad, TZ Fischer, et al. Maladaptive dendritic spine remodeling contributes to diabetic neuropathic pain. J Neurosci. 2012, 32(20): 6795–6807.
[23]
J Foell, R Bekrater-Bodmann, M Diers, et al. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain: Brain changes and the role of body representation. Eur J Pain. 2014, 18(5): 729–739.
[24]
K MacIver, DM Lloyd, S Kelly, et al. Phantom limb pain, cortical reorganization and the therapeutic effect of mental imagery. Brain. 2008, 131(Pt8): 2181–2191.
[25]
M Lotze, H Flor, W Grodd, et al. Phantom movements and pain: An fMRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain. 2001, 124(Pt11): 2268–2277.
[26]
PJ Wrigley, SR Press, SM Gustin, et al. Neuropathic pain and primary somatosensory cortex reorganization following spinal cord injury. Pain. 2009, 141(1–2): 52–59.
[27]
TR Makin, J Scholz, S D Henderson, et al. Reassessing cortical reorganization in the primary sensorimotor cortex following arm amputation. Brain. 2015, 138(Pt8): 2140–2146.
[28]
SA Ovadia, M Askari. Upper extremity amputations and prosthetics. Semin Plast Surg. 2015, 29(1): 55–61.
[29]
R Foltan, K Klima, J Spackova, et al. Mechanism of traumatic neuroma development. Med Hypotheses. 2008, 71(4): 572–576.
[30]
C Sommer, M Kress. Recent findings on how proinflammatory cytokines cause pain: Peripheral mechanisms in inflammatory and neuropathic hyperalgesia. Neurosci Lett. 2004, 361(1–3): 184–187.
[31]
JM Zhang, J An. Cytokines, inflammation, and pain. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2007, 45(2): 27–37.
[32]
JC Czeschik, T Hagenacker, M Schafers, et al. TNF-alpha differentially modulates ion channels of nociceptive neurons. Neurosci Lett. 2008, 434(3): 293–298.
[33]
Y Kovalsky, R Amir, M Devor. Simulation in sensory neurons reveals a key role for delayed Na+ current in subthreshold oscillations and ectopic discharge: Implications for neuropathic pain. J Neurophysiol. 2009, 102(3): 1430–1442.
[34]
R Yin, D Liu, M Chhoa, et al. Voltage-gated sodium channel function and expression in injured and uninjured rat dorsal root ganglia neurons. Int J Neurosci. 2016, 126(2): 182–192.
[35]
M Schafers, CI Svensson, C Sommer, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces mechanical allodynia after spinal nerve ligation by activation of p38 MAPK in primary sensory neurons. J Neurosci. 2003, 23(7): 2517–2521
[36]
JD Carlson, JJ Maire, ME Martenson, et al. Sensitization of painmodulating neurons in the rostral ventromedial medulla after peripheral nerve injury. J Neurosci. 2007, 27(48): 13222–13231.
[37]
C Heijmans-Antonissen, F Wesseldijk, RJ Munnikes, et al. Multiplex bead array assay for detection of 25 soluble cytokines in blister fluid of patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Mediators Inflamm. 2006, 2006(1): 28398.
[38]
WR Xie, H Deng, H Li, et al. Robust increase of cutaneous sensitivity, cytokine production and sympathetic sprouting in rats with localized inflammatory irritation of the spinal ganglia. Neuroscience. 2006, 142(3): 809–822.
[39]
M Bone, P Critchley, DJ Buggy. Gabapentin in postamputation phantom limb pain: A randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled, cross-over study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2002, 27(5): 481–486.
[40]
LM Rusy, TJ Troshynski, SJ Weisman. Gabapentin in phantom limb pain management in children and young adults: Report of seven cases. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001, 21(1): 78–82.
[41]
DG Smith, DM Ehde, MA Hanley, et al. Efficacy of gabapentin in treating chronic phantom limb and residual limb pain. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2005, 42(5): 645–654.
[42]
AR Ben, N Marouani, AA Weinbroum. Dextromethorphan mitigates phantom pain in cancer amputees. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003, 10(3): 268–274.
[43]
L Nikolajsen, H Gottrup, AG Kristensen, et al. Memantine (a N-methyl-Daspartate receptor antagonist) in the treatment of neuropathic pain after amputation or surgery: A randomized, double-blinded, cross-over study. Anesth Analg. 2000, 91(4): 960–966.
[44]
MJ Alviar.Hale TDungca M. Pharmacologic interventions for treating phantom limb pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011, 12: CD006380.
[45]
J Halbert.Crotty MCameron ID. Evidence for the optimal management of acute and chronic phantom pain: a systematic review. Clin J Pain. 2002, 18(2): 84–92.
[46]
MJ Alviar, T Hale, M Dungca. Pharmacologic interventions for treating phantom limb pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016, 10: CD006380.
[47]
JC Ballantyne, NS Shin. Efficacy of opioids for chronic pain: a review of the evidence. Clin J Pain. 2008, 24(6): 469–478.
[48]
T Buchheit, S Pyati. Prevention of chronic pain after surgical nerve injury: Amputation and thoracotomy. Surg Clin North Am. 2012, 92(2): 393–407, x.
[49]
R Fuzier, J Rousset, B Bataille, et al. One half of patients reports persistent pain three months after orthopaedic surgery. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2015, 34(3): 159–164.
[50]
A Ichinose, Y Sano, M Osumi, et al. Somatosensory feedback to the cheek during virtual visual feedback therapy enhances pain Alleviation for phantom arms. Neurorehab Neural Re. 2017, 31(8): 717–725.
[51]
D Bradbrook. Acupuncture treatment of phantom limb pain and phantom limb sensation in amputees. Acupunct Med. 2004, 22(2): 93–97.
[52]
A Davies. Acupuncture treatment of phantom limb pain and phantom limb sensation in a primary care setting. Acupunct Med. 2013, 31(1): 101–104.
[53]
CC Tseng, PY Chen, YC Lee. Successful treatment of phantom limb pain and phantom limb sensation in the traumatic amputee using scalp acupuncture. Acupunct Med. 2014, 32(4): 356–358.
[54]
S Batsford, CG Ryan, DJ Martin. Non-pharmacological conservative therapy for phantom limb pain: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Physiother Theory Pract. 2017, 33(3): 173–183.
[55]
DA Oakley, LG Whitman, PW Halligan. Hypnotic imagery as a treatment for phantom limb pain: Two case reports and a review. Clin Rehabil. 2001, 16(4): 368–377.
[56]
HJ Wain. Pain as a biopsychosocial entity and its significance for treatment with hypnosis. Psychiatr Med. 1992, 10(1): 101–117.
[57]
WT Tsushima. Psychological therapies for chronic pain. Hawaii Med J. 1985, 44(4): 124–125.
[58]
AM De Nunzio, MA Schweisfurth, N Ge, et al. Relieving phantom limb pain with multimodal sensory-motor training. J Neural Eng. 2018, 15(6): 066022.
[59]
O Frischenschlager, I Pucher. Psychological management of pain. Disabil Rehabil. 2002, 24(8): 416–422.
[60]
RJ Trifiletti. The psychological effectiveness of pain management procedures in the context of behavioral medicine and medical psychology. Genet Psychol Monogr. 1984, 109(2D Half): 251–278.
[61]
L Vase, L Nikolajsen, B Christensen, et al. Cognitive- emotional sensitization contributes to wind-up-like pain in phantom limb pain patients. Pain. 2011, 152(1): 157–162.
[62]
BL Chan, R Witt, AP Charrow, et al. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain. N Engl J Med. 2007, 357(21): 2206–2207.
[63]
P Giraux, A Sirigu. Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity. Neuroimage. 2003, 20(3): S107–S111.
[64]
CS McCabe, RC Haigh, EF Ring, et al. A controlled pilot study of the utility of mirror visual feedback in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (type 1). Rheumatology. 2003, 42(1): 97–101.
[65]
GL Moseley, A Gallace, C Spence. Is mirror therapy all it is cracked up to be? Current evidence and future directions. Pain. 2008, 138(1): 7–10.
[66]
VS Ramachandran, D Rogers-Ramachandran. Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors. Proc Biol Sci. 1996, 263(1369): 377–386.
[67]
MR Mulvey, HE Radford, HJ Fawkner, et al. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for phantom pain and stump pain in adult amputees. Pain Pract. 2013, 13(4): 289–296.
[68]
BA Petersen, AC Nanivadekar, S Chandrasekaran, et al. Phantom limb pain: Peripheral neuromodulatory and neuroprosthetic approaches to treatment. Muscle Nerve. 2019, 59: 154–167.
[69]
A Soin, NS Shah, ZP Fang. High-frequency electrical nerve block for postamputation pain: A pilot study. Neuromodulation. 2015, 18(3): 197–205.
[70]
T Cameron. Safety and efficacy of spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain: A 20-year literature review. J Neurosurg. 2004, 100: 254–267.
[71]
Y Katayama, T Yamamoto, K Kobayashi, et al. Motor cortex stimulation for phantom limb pain: Comprehensive therapy with spinal cord and thalamic stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2001, 77(1–4): 159–162.
[72]
C Nuti, F Vassal, P Mertens, et al. Improved dexterity after chronic electrical stimulation of the motor cortex for central pain: a special relevance for thalamic syndrome. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2012, 90(6): 370–378.
[73]
D Bek, B Demiralp, M Komurcu, et al. The relationship between phantom limb pain and neuroma. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc. 2006, 40(1): 44–48.
[74]
MA Pet, JH Ko, JL Friedly, et al. Traction neurectomy for treatment of painful residual limb neuroma in lower extremity amputees. J Orthop Trauma. 2015, 29(9): e321–325.
[75]
M Calcagni, S Zimmermann, MF Scaglioni, et al. The novel treatment of SVF-enriched fat grafting for painful end- neuromas of superficial radial nerve. Microsurgery. 2018, 38(3): 264–269.
[76]
R Kakinoki, R Ikeguchi, T Matsumoto, et al. Treatment of painful peripheral neuromas by vein implantation. Int Orthop. 2003, 27(1): 60–64.
[77]
H Koch, TJ Herbert, R Kleinert, et al. Influence of nerve stump transplantation into a vein on neuroma formation. Ann Plast Surg. 2003, 50(4): 354–360.
[78]
JM Souza, JE Cheesborough, JH Ko, et al. Targeted muscle reinnervation: A novel approach to postamputation neuroma pain. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014, 472(10): 2984–2990.
[79]
JM Economides, MV DeFazio, CE Attinger, et al. Prevention of painful neuroma and phantom limb pain after transfemoral amputations through concomitant nerve coaptation and collagen nerve wrapping. Neurosurgery. 2016, 79(3): 508–513.
[80]
J Lewin-Kowalik, W Marcol, K Kotulska, et al. Prevention and management of painful neuroma. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2006, 46(2): 62–68.
[82]
DP Kuffler. Coping with phantom limb pain. Mol Neurobiol. 2018, 55(1): 70–84.
[83]
S Shamash, F Reichert, S Rotshenker. The cytokine network of Wallerian degeneration: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1alpha, and interleukin-1beta. J Neurosci. 2002, 22(8): 3052–3060.
[84]
SM Opal, VA DePalo. Anti-inflammatory cytokines. Chest. 2000, 117(4): 1162–1172.
[85]
DM Mosser, X Zhang. Interleukin-10: New perspectives on an old cytokine. Immunol Rev. 2008, 226: 205–218.
[86]
H Cao, YQ Zhang. Spinal glial activation contributes to pathological pain states. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008, 32(5): 972–983.
[87]
YH Chen, SC Hsieh, WY Chen, et al. Spontaneous resolution of acute gouty arthritis is associated with rapid induction of the anti-inflammatory factors TGFbeta1, IL-10 and soluble TNF receptors and the intracellular cytokine negative regulators CIS and SOCS3. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011, 70(9): 1655–1663.
[88]
W Ouyang, S Rutz, NK Crellin, et al. Regulation and functions of the IL-10 family of cytokines in inflammation and disease. Annu Rev Immunol. 2011, 29: 71–109.
[89]
J Wieseler-Frank, SF Maier, LR Watkins. Glial activation and pathological pain. Neurochem Int. 2004, 45(2–3): 389–395.
[90]
D Boraschi, A Tagliabue. The interleukin-1 receptor family. Semin Immunol 2013, 25(6): 394–407.
[91]
A Steensberg, CP Fischer, C Keller. IL-6 enhances plasma IL-1ra, IL-10, and cortisol in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 285(2): E433–437.
[92]
S Sweitzer, D Martin, JA DeLeo. Intrathecal interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in combination with soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor exhibits an anti-allodynic action in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Neuroscience. 2001, 103(2): 529–539.
[93]
MD da Silva, F Bobinski, KL Sato, et al. IL-10 cytokine released from M2 macrophages is crucial for analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of acupuncture in a model of inflammatory muscle pain. Mol Neurobiol. 2015, 51(1): 19–31.
[94]
KF Shen, HQ Zhu, XH Wei, et al. Interleukin-10 down- regulates voltage gated sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. Exp Neurol. 2013, 247: 466–475.
[95]
JX Chen, N Justicz, LN Lee. Platelet-rich plasma for the treatment of androgenic alopecia: A systematic review. Facial Plast Surg. 2018, 34(06): 631–640.
[96]
Y Di, C Han, L Zhao, et al. Is local platelet-rich plasma injection clinically superior to hyaluronic acid for treatment of knee osteoarthritis? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Res Ther. 2018, 20(1): 128.
[97]
J Fitzpatrick, M Bulsara, MH Zheng. The effectiveness of platelet-rich plasma in the treatment of tendinopathy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Am J Sports Med. 2017, 45(1): 226–233.
[98]
ET Hurley, D Lim Fat, CJ Moran, et al. The efficacy of platelet-rich plasma and platelet-rich fibrin in arthroscopic rotator cuff repair: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Sports Med. 2019, 47(3): 753–761.
[99]
CJ Fu, JB Sun, ZG Bi. Evaluation of platelet-rich plasma and fibrin matrix to assist in healing and repair of rotator cuff injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil. 2017, 31(2): 158–172.
[100]
A Grassi, F Napoli, I Romandini, et al. Is platelet-rich plasma (PRP) effective in the treatment of acute muscle injuries? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2018, 48(4): 971–989.
[101]
M Khan, A Bedi. Cochrane in CORR ((R)): Platelet-rich therapies for musculoskeletal soft tissue injuries. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2015, 473(7): 2207–2213.
[102]
S Sampson, M Gerhardt, B Mandelbaum. Platelet rich plasma injection grafts for musculoskeletal injuries: A review. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2008, 1(3–4): 165–174.
[105]
N Birbaumer, W Lutzenberger, P Montoya, et al. Effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci. 1997, 17(14): 5503–5508.
[106]
J Schneider, A Hofmann, C Rost, et al. EMDR in the treatment of chronic phantom limb pain. Pain Med. 2008, 9(1): 76–82.
[107]
H Flor, C Denke, M Schaefer, et al. Effect of sensory discrimination training on cortical reorganisation and phantom limb pain. Lancet. 2001, 357(9270): 1763–1764.
[108]
S Bach, MF Noreng, NU Tjellden. Phantom limb pain in amputees during the first 12 months following limb amputation, after preoperative lumbar epidural blockade. Pain. 1988, 33(3): 297–301.
[109]
DP Kuffler, O Reyes, IJ Sosa, et al. Neurological recovery across a 12-cm-long ulnar nerve gap repaired 3.25 years post trauma: Case report. Neurosurgery. 2011, 69(6): E1321–1326.
[110]
O Reyes, IJ Sosa, J Santiago, et al. A novel technique leading to complete sensory and motor recovery across a long peripheral nerve gap. P R Health Sci J. 2007, 26(3): 225–228.
[111]
J Santiago-Figueroa, DP Kuffler. Reducing and eliminating neuropathic pain. P R Health Sci J. 2009, 28(4): 289–300.
[112]
J Santiago-Figueroa, IJ Sosa, O Reyes, et al. A novel technique for reducing and eliminating peripheral neuropathic pain: A clinical study. J Pain Manag. 2011, 4(4): 387–394.
[113]
AF Battista, HM Cravioto, GN Budzilovich. Painful neuroma: Changes produced in peripheral nerve after fascicle ligation. Neurosurgery. 1981, 9(5): 589–600.
[114]
MA Pet, JH Ko, JL Friedly, et al. Does targeted nerve implantation reduce neuroma pain in amputees? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2014, 472(10): 2991–3001.
[115]
TR Tyner, N Parks, S Faria, et al. Effects of collagen nerve guide on neuroma formation and neuropathic pain in a rat model. Am J Surg. 2007, 193(1): e1–6.
[116]
CP Watson, JN Stinson, JO Dostrovsky, et al. Nerve resection and re-location may relieve causalgia: A case report. Pain 2007, 132(1–2): 211–217.
[117]
H Balcin, P Erba, R Wettstein, et al. A comparative study of two methods of surgical treatment for painful neuroma. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009, 91(6): 803–808.
[118]
AL Dellon, J Kim, I Ducic. Painful neuroma of the posterior cutaneous nerve of the forearm after surgery for lateral humeral epicondylitis. J Hand Surg(Am). 2004, 29(3): 387–390.
[119]
DT Demant, K Lund, NB Finnerup, et al. Pain relief with lidocaine 5% patch in localized peripheral neuropathic pain in relation to pain phenotype: a randomised, double-blind, and placebo-controlled, phenotype panel study. Pain. 2015, 156(11): 2234–2244.
Publication history
Copyright
Rights and permissions
Publication history
Received: 16 November 2018
Accepted: 27 February 2019
Published:
30 March 2019
Issue date: March 2019
Copyright
© The authors 2019
Rights and permissions
This article is published with open access at http://jnr.tsinghuajournals.com
FEEDBACK 
TOP