Food-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Biogenesis Mechanisms, Functional Characteristics, and Therapeutic Potential for Disease Treatment

Food-derived extracellular vesicles (FDEVs) are a class of naturally occurring nanoscale bioactive carriers found in various edible plant and animal-derived foods. With their low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, and innate targeting capabilities, FDEVs have emerged as promising candidates for disease prevention, health promotion, and food-based therapeutic delivery strategies. Growing evidence indicates that these vesicles play crucial roles in supporting multiple physiological functions relevant to human health. This review systematically integrates recent advances in FDEVs biogenesis mechanisms, isolation and purification techniques, and physicochemical and biological characterization, emphasizing validated mechanisms and preclinical evidence in anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic effects. Furthermore, we explore the potential of FDEVs as natural, safe, and efficient nanocarriers for functional foods and precision nutrition interventions. We also analyze key bottlenecks hindering their translation, including the lack of scalable separation processes and standardized quality control systems. Addressing these challenges is crucial for advancing FDEVs as next-generation functional food active ingredients, offering novel strategies to improve population health and develop targeted nutritional interventions.