Advances in Research on Environments, Formation Mechanisms, and Damage Survey of Tornadoes

Tornado disasters are intense and have been attracting significant social attention. This article reviews recent research progress on tornado mechanisms, intensity scales, and damage survey methodologies. It examines key aspects such as processes of tornadic vortex formation and dissipation, challenges in field survey and intensity estimation, and so on, and provides outlook for future research. While the favorable environmental conditions for mesocyclone tornadoes are well documented, several critical questions remain unresolved: the role of low-level atmospheric humidity under cold vortex conditions, the influence of convective available potential energy in tropical cyclone tornadoes, and the environmental prerequisites for tornado outbreak events. The formation of mesocyclone tornadoes involves multiple stages: development of mesocyclones, generation and organization of near-surface vortex patches, subsequent intensification, and the critical influence of surface friction leading to the development of tornado vortex boundary layers and corner flow regions. Topography exerts complex effects on tornado behavior, typically causing weakening during uphill movement and intensification during descent. Tornado dissipation mechanisms vary, with any disruption to sustaining factors potentially leading to vortex demise. Common tornado intensity scales include the Fujita (F), Enhanced Fujita (EF), and TORRO (T) scales. The T-scale features the most detailed categorization (11 levels), while the EF-scale remains the most widely adopted standard internationally. China’s national tornado intensity classification system aligns directly with the EF-scale. Significant advancements have been made in severe wind damage survey methods and procedures, with extensive tornado case data now available in China. However, the complex disaster mechanisms of tornadoes introduce substantial uncertainty in intensity assessment. Continued improvements are needed in high-resolution observations, damage survey techniques, physical mechanism studies, and forecasting/warning capabilities to enhance tornado preparedness and mitigation efforts.