Journal Home > Volume 17 , Issue 3
Nano Research 2024, 17(3): 1056-1065 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-023-5888-3
Research Article | Issue | Published: 26 July 2023

Accelerating solar driven CO2 reduction via sulfur-doping boosted water dissociation and proton transfer

Show Author's Information Ke Yan1,§,  Liang Chen2,§,  Yangguang Hu3,  Ting Wang1,  Cong Chen1,  Chao Gao3,  Youju Huang2,  Benxia Li1( )
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
College of Material, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Organosilicon Chemistry and Material Technology, Ministry of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

§ Ke Yan and Liang Chen contributed equally to this work.

Keywords:
photocatalytic CO2 reduction, BiOCl, sulfur doping, H2O activation, proton feeding
Topics:
Photocatalysts
Cite this article:
Yan K, Chen L, Hu Y, et al. Accelerating solar driven CO2 reduction via sulfur-doping boosted water dissociation and proton transfer. Nano Research, 2024, 17(3): 1056-1065. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-023-5888-3
Download citation
EndNote(RIS)
BibTeX

522

Views

73

Downloads

Citations

4

Crossref

5

WoS

4

Scopus

0

CSCD

Abstract Full text Electronic supplementary material About this article

Exploring efficient photocatalysts for solar driven CO2 reduction with water (H2O) as a proton donor is highly imperative but remains a great challenge because the synchronous enhancement of CO2 activation, H2O dissociation and proton transfer is hardly achieved on a photocatalyst. Particularly, the sluggish H2O dissociation impedes the photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction involving multiple proton–electron coupling transfer processes. Herein, a sulfur-doped BiOCl (S-BiOCl) photocatalyst with abundant oxygen vacancies (OV) is developed, which exhibits broadband-light harvesting across solar spectrum and distinct photothermal effect due to photochromism. For photocatalytic CO2 reduction with H2O in a gas–solid system, the high CO yield of 49.76 μmol·gcat−1·h−1 with 100% selectivity is achieved over the S-BiOCl catalyst under a simulated sunlight. The H2O-assisted CO2 reduction reaction on S-BiOCl catalyst is triggered by photocatalysis and the photothermal heating further enhances the reaction rate. The kinetic isotope experiments indicate that the sluggish H2O dissociation affects the whole photocatalytic CO2 reduction process. The presence of oxygen vacancies promotes the adsorption and activation of H2O and CO2, and the doped S sites play a crucial role in boosting H2O dissociation and accelerating the dynamic migration of hydrogen species. As a result, the ingenious integration of OV defects, S sites and photothermal effect in S-BiOCl catalyst conjointly contributes to the significant improvement in photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance.


menu
Abstract
Full text
Outline
Electronic supplementary material
About this article

Accelerating solar driven CO2 reduction via sulfur-doping boosted water dissociation and proton transfer

Show Author's information Ke Yan1,§, Liang Chen2,§, Yangguang Hu3, Ting Wang1, Cong Chen1, Chao Gao3, Youju Huang2, Benxia Li1( )
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
College of Material, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Organosilicon Chemistry and Material Technology, Ministry of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

§ Ke Yan and Liang Chen contributed equally to this work.

Abstract

Exploring efficient photocatalysts for solar driven CO2 reduction with water (H2O) as a proton donor is highly imperative but remains a great challenge because the synchronous enhancement of CO2 activation, H2O dissociation and proton transfer is hardly achieved on a photocatalyst. Particularly, the sluggish H2O dissociation impedes the photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction involving multiple proton–electron coupling transfer processes. Herein, a sulfur-doped BiOCl (S-BiOCl) photocatalyst with abundant oxygen vacancies (OV) is developed, which exhibits broadband-light harvesting across solar spectrum and distinct photothermal effect due to photochromism. For photocatalytic CO2 reduction with H2O in a gas–solid system, the high CO yield of 49.76 μmol·gcat−1·h−1 with 100% selectivity is achieved over the S-BiOCl catalyst under a simulated sunlight. The H2O-assisted CO2 reduction reaction on S-BiOCl catalyst is triggered by photocatalysis and the photothermal heating further enhances the reaction rate. The kinetic isotope experiments indicate that the sluggish H2O dissociation affects the whole photocatalytic CO2 reduction process. The presence of oxygen vacancies promotes the adsorption and activation of H2O and CO2, and the doped S sites play a crucial role in boosting H2O dissociation and accelerating the dynamic migration of hydrogen species. As a result, the ingenious integration of OV defects, S sites and photothermal effect in S-BiOCl catalyst conjointly contributes to the significant improvement in photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance.

Keywords: photocatalytic CO2 reduction, BiOCl, sulfur doping, H2O activation, proton feeding

References(52)

[1]

Gao, W. L.; Liang, S. Y.; Wang, R. J.; Jiang, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Zheng, Q. W.; Xie, B. Q.; Toe, C. Y.; Zhu, X. C.; Wang, J. Y. et al. Industrial carbon dioxide capture and utilization: State of the art and future challenges. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2020, 49, 8584–8686.
DOI Google Scholar
[2]

Schäppi, R.; Rutz, D.; Dähler, F.; Muroyama, A.; Haueter, P.; Lilliestam, J.; Patt, A.; Furler, P.; Steinfeld, A. Drop-in fuels from sunlight and air. Nature 2022, 601, 63–68.
DOI Google Scholar
[3]

Lin, H. W.; Luo, S. Q.; Zhang, H. B.; Ye, J. H. Toward solar-driven carbon recycling. Joule 2022, 6, 294–314.
DOI Google Scholar
[4]

Gong, E.; Ali, S.; Hiragond, C. B.; Kim, H. S.; Powar, N. S.; Kim, D.; Kim, H.; In, S. I. Solar fuels: Research and development strategies to accelerate photocatalytic CO2 conversion into hydrocarbon fuels. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 880–937.
DOI Google Scholar
[5]

Fu, J. W.; Jiang, K. X.; Qiu, X. Q.; Yu, J. G.; Liu, M. Product selectivity of photocatalytic CO2 reduction reactions. Mater. Today 2020, 32, 222–243.
DOI Google Scholar
[6]

Zhou, J.; Li, J.; Kan, L.; Zhang, L.; Huang, Q.; Yan, Y.; Chen, Y. F.; Liu, J.; Li, S. L.; Lan, Y. Q. Linking oxidative and reductive clusters to prepare crystalline porous catalysts for photocatalytic CO2 reduction with H2O. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 4681.
DOI Google Scholar
[7]

Wang, X. Y.; Wang, Y. S.; Gao, M. C.; Shen, J. N.; Pu, X. P.; Zhang, Z. Z.; Lin, H. X.; Wang, X. X. BiVO4/Bi4Ti3O12 heterojunction enabling efficient photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O to CH3OH and CO. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2020, 270, 118876.
DOI Google Scholar
[8]

Wang, Q. L.; Miao, Z. R.; Zhang, Y. F.; Yan, T. J.; Meng, L. P.; Wang, X. X. Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O mediated by Ce-tailored bismuth oxybromide surface frustrated Lewis pairs. ACS Catal. 2022, 12, 4016–4025.
DOI Google Scholar
[9]

Yin, S. K.; Zhao, X. X.; Jiang, E. H.; Yan, Y.; Zhou, P.; Huo, P. W. Boosting water decomposition by sulfur vacancies for efficient CO2 photoreduction. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 1556–1562.
DOI Google Scholar
[10]

Zhu, J. C.; Shao, W. W.; Li, X. D.; Jiao, X. C.; Zhu, J. F.; Sun, Y. F.; Xie, Y. Asymmetric triple-atom sites confined in ternary oxide enabling selective CO2 photothermal reduction to acetate. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2021, 143, 18233–18241.
DOI Google Scholar
[11]

Ma, M. Z.; Huang, Z. A.; Wang, R.; Zhang, R. Y.; Yang, T.; Rao, Z. Q.; Fa, W. J.; Zhang, F. Y.; Cao, Y. H.; Yu, S. et al. Targeted H2O activation to manipulate the selective photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CH3OH over carbon nitride-supported cobalt sulfide. Green Chem. 2022, 24, 8791–8799.
DOI Google Scholar
[12]

Chen, S. Y.; Li, X. Q.; Kao, C. W.; Luo, T.; Chen, K. J.; Fu, J. W.; Ma, C.; Li, H. M.; Li, M.; Chan, T. S. et al. Unveiling the proton-feeding effect in sulfur-doped Fe-N-C single-atom catalyst for enhanced CO2 electroreduction. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202206233.
DOI Google Scholar
[13]

Zheng, W. Z.; Wang, D. S.; Cui, W. J.; Sang, X. H.; Qin, X. T.; Zhao, Z. L.; Li, Z. J.; Yang, B.; Zhong, M.; Lei, L. C. et al. Accelerating industrial-level CO2 electroreduction kinetics on isolated zinc centers via sulfur-boosted bicarbonate dissociation. Energy Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 1007–1015.
DOI Google Scholar
[14]

Wang, M.; Liu, S.; Chen, B.; Huang, M. J.; Peng, C. Co-regulation of intermediate binding and water activation in sulfur-doped bismuth nanosheets for electrocatalytic CO2 reduction to formate. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 451, 139056.
DOI Google Scholar
[15]

Shi, Y. B.; Li, J.; Mao, C. L.; Liu, S.; Wang, X. B.; Liu, X. F.; Zhao, S. X.; Liu, X.; Huang, Y. Q.; Zhang, L. Z. Van Der Waals gap-rich BiOCl atomic layers realizing efficient, pure-water CO2-to-CO photocatalysis. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 5923.
DOI Google Scholar
[16]

Shi, X.; Dong, X. A.; He, Y.; Yan, P.; Dong, F. Light-induced halogen defects as dynamic active sites for CO2 photoreduction to CO with 100% selectivity. Sci. Bull. 2022, 67, 1137–1144.
DOI Google Scholar
[17]

Di, J.; Chen, C.; Zhu, C.; Long, R.; Chen, H. L.; Cao, X. Z.; Xiong, J.; Weng, Y. X.; Song, L.; Li, S. Z. et al. Surface local polarization induced by bismuth-oxygen vacancy pairs tuning non-covalent interaction for CO2 photoreduction. Adv. Energy Mater. 2021, 11, 2102389.
DOI Google Scholar
[18]

Wang, L.; Wang, R. Y.; Qiu, T. Y.; Yang, L. Q.; Han, Q. T.; Shen, Q.; Zhou, X.; Zhou, Y.; Zou, Z. G. Bismuth vacancy-induced efficient CO2 photoreduction in BiOCl directly from natural air: A progressive step toward photosynthesis in nature. Nano Lett. 2021, 21, 10260–10266.
DOI Google Scholar
[19]

Ma, S. H.; Luo, X.; Ran, G.; Li, Y. P.; Cao, Z. Q.; Liu, X. Y.; Chen, G. Q.; Yan, J. H.; Wang, L. Defect engineering of ultrathin 2D nanosheet BiOI/Bi for enhanced photothermal-catalytic synergistic bacteria-killing. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 435, 134810.
DOI Google Scholar
[20]

Fang, S. Y.; Hu, Y. H. Thermo-photo catalysis: A whole greater than the sum of its parts. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2022, 51, 3609–3647.
DOI Google Scholar
[21]

Gong, S. W.; Zhu, G. Q.; Wang, R.; Rao, F.; Shi, X. J.; Gao, J. Z.; Huang, Y.; He, C. Z.; Hojamberdiev, M. Synergistically boosting highly selective CO2-to-CO photoreduction over BiOCl nanosheets via in-situ formation of surface defects and non-precious metal nanoparticles. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2021, 297, 120413.
DOI Google Scholar
[22]

Mao, D. J.; Yang, S. X.; Hu, Y.; He, H.; Yang, S. G.; Zheng, S. R.; Sun, C.; Jiang, Z. F.; Qu, X. L.; Wong, P. K. Efficient CO2 photoreduction triggered by oxygen vacancies in ultrafine Bi5O7Br nanowires. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2023, 321, 122031.
DOI Google Scholar
[23]

Shi, X.; Dong, X. A.; He, Y.; Yan, P.; Zhang, S. H.; Dong, F. Photoswitchable chlorine vacancies in ultrathin Bi4O5Cl2 for selective CO2 photoreduction. ACS Catal. 2022, 12, 3965–3973.
DOI Google Scholar
[24]

Shi, Y. B.; Zhan, G. M.; Li, H.; Wang, X. B.; Liu, X. F.; Shi, L. J.; Wei, K.; Ling, C. C.; Li, Z. L.; Wang, H. et al. Simultaneous manipulation of bulk excitons and surface defects for ultrastable and highly selective CO2 photoreduction. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2100143.
DOI Google Scholar
[25]

Zhang, Y. J.; Xu, Z. F.; Wang, Q.; Hao, W. C.; Zhai, X. P.; Fei, X.; Huang, X. J.; Bi, Y. P. Unveiling the activity origin of ultrathin BiOCl nanosheets for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2021, 299, 120679.
DOI Google Scholar
[26]

Zu, X. L.; Zhao, Y.; Li, X. D.; Chen, R. H.; Shao, W. W.; Wang, Z. Q.; Hu, J.; Zhu, J. F.; Pan, Y.; Sun, Y. F. et al. Ultrastable and efficient visible-light-driven CO2 reduction triggered by regenerative oxygen-vacancies in Bi2O2CO3 nanosheets. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 13840–13846.
DOI Google Scholar
[27]

Zhao, X. Z.; Xia, Y. G.; Li, H. P.; Wang, X.; Wei, J.; Jiao, X. L.; Chen, D. R. Oxygen vacancy dependent photocatalytic CO2 reduction activity in liquid-exfoliated atomically thin BiOCl nanosheets. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2021, 297, 120426.
DOI Google Scholar
[28]

Dai, W. L.; Wang, P.; Long, J. F.; Xu, Y.; Zhang, M.; Yang, L. X.; Zou, J. P.; Luo, X. B.; Luo, S. L. Constructing robust Bi active sites in situ on α-Bi2O3 for efficient and selective photoreduction of CO2 to CH4 via directional transfer of electrons. ACS Catal. 2023, 13, 2513–2522.
DOI Google Scholar
[29]

Chen, W. Y.; Liu, X. M.; Han, B.; Liang, S. J.; Deng, H.; Lin, Z. Boosted photoreduction of diluted CO2 through oxygen vacancy engineering in NiO nanoplatelets. Nano Res. 2021, 14, 730–737.
DOI Google Scholar
[30]

Chen, Y. D.; Li, Y.; Chen, W.; Xu, W. W.; Han, Z. K.; Waheed, A.; Ye, Z. B.; Li, G.; Baiker, A. Continuous dimethyl carbonate synthesis from CO2 and methanol over BixCe1−xOδ monoliths: Effect of bismuth doping on population of oxygen vacancies, activity, and reaction pathway. Nano Res. 2022, 15, 1366–1374.
DOI Google Scholar
[31]

Zhang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Feng, Z. Y.; Zhao, J. M.; Yang, Z. M.; Wang, X.; Wang, W. S. Self-accelerating photocharge separation in BiOBr ultrathin nanosheets for boosting photoreversible color switching. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 428, 131235.
DOI Google Scholar
[32]

He, J. R.; Hu, L. J.; Shao, C. T.; Jiang, S. J.; Sun, C. Z.; Song, S. Q. Photocatalytic H2O overall splitting into H2 bubbles by single atomic sulfur vacancy CdS with spin polarization electric field. ACS Nano 2021, 15, 18006–18013.
DOI Google Scholar
[33]

Wang, T.; Chen, L.; Chen, C.; Huang, M. T.; Huang, Y. J.; Liu, S. J.; Li, B. X. Engineering catalytic interfaces in Cuδ+/CeO2-TiO2 photocatalysts for synergistically boosting CO2 reduction to ethylene. ACS Nano 2022, 16, 2306–2318.
DOI Google Scholar
[34]

Lee, B. H.; Park, S.; Kim, M.; Sinha, A. K.; Lee, S. C.; Jung, E.; Chang, W. J.; Lee, K. S.; Kim, J. H.; Cho, S. P. et al. Reversible and cooperative photoactivation of single-atom Cu/TiO2 photocatalysts. Nat. Mater. 2019, 18, 620–626.
DOI Google Scholar
[35]

Kreft, S.; Schoch, R.; Schneidewind, J.; Rabeah, J.; Kondratenko, E. V.; Kondratenko, V. A.; Junge, H.; Bauer, M.; Wohlrab, S.; Beller, M. Improving selectivity and activity of CO2 reduction photocatalysts with oxygen. Chem 2019, 5, 1818–1833.
DOI Google Scholar
[36]

Wang, T.; Sun, F. L.; Liu, S. J.; Zhuang, G. L.; Li, B. X. Dioxygen-enhanced CO2 photoreduction on TiO2 supported Cu single-atom sites. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2023, 325, 122339.
DOI Google Scholar
[37]

Chen, S. H.; Zhang, Z. D.; Jiang, W. J.; Zhang, S. S.; Zhu, J. X.; Wang, L. Q.; Ou, H. H.; Zaman, S.; Tan, L.; Zhu, P. et al. Engineering water molecules activation center on multisite electrocatalysts for enhanced CO2 methanation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2022, 144, 12807–12815.
DOI Google Scholar
[38]

Liu, P. G.; Huang, Z. X.; Gao, X. P.; Hong, X.; Zhu, J. F.; Wang, G. M.; Wu, Y. E.; Zeng, J.; Zheng, X. S. Synergy between palladium single atoms and nanoparticles via hydrogen spillover for enhancing CO2 photoreduction to CH4. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2200057.
DOI Google Scholar
[39]

Zhang, M. M.; Wang, C. H.; Wang, Y. Y.; Li, S. M.; Zhang, X. T.; Liu, Y. C. Tunable bismuth doping/loading endows NaTaO3 nanosheet highly selective photothermal reduction of CO2. Nano Res. 2023, 16, 2142–2151.
DOI Google Scholar
[40]

Wang, M. M.; Sun, K. A.; Mi, W. L.; Feng, C.; Guan, Z. K.; Liu, Y. Q.; Pan, Y. Interfacial water activation by single-atom Co-N3 sites coupled with encapsulated Co nanocrystals for accelerating electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. ACS Catal. 2022, 12, 10771–10780.
DOI Google Scholar
[41]

Wang, H. Q.; Hou, Y. L.; Sun, W. J.; Hu, Q. K.; Xiong, H.; Wang, T. F.; Yan, B. H.; Qian, W. Z. Insight into the effects of water on the ethene to aromatics reaction with HZSM-5. ACS Catal. 2020, 10, 5288–5298.
DOI Google Scholar
[42]

Yan, K.; Wu, D. H.; Wang, T.; Chen, C.; Liu, S. J.; Hu, Y. G.; Gao, C.; Chen, H. Y.; Li, B. X. Highly selective ethylene production from solar-driven CO2 reduction on the Bi2S3@In2S3 catalyst with In-SV-Bi active sites. ACS Catal. 2023, 13, 2302–2312.
DOI Google Scholar
[43]

Liu, P. G.; Huang, Z. X.; Yang, S. K.; Du, J. Y.; Zhang, Y. D.; Cao, R.; Chen, C.; Li, L.; Chen, T.; Wang, G. M. et al. Support amorphization engineering regulates single-atom Ru as an electron pump for nitrogen photofixation. ACS Catal. 2022, 12, 8139–8146.
DOI Google Scholar
[44]

Cheng, Y. Y.; Liu, Y. X.; Liu, Y. L.; Li, Y. X.; Wu, R. Q.; Du, Y. C.; Askari, N.; Liu, N. Y.; Qiao, F.; Sun, C. H. et al. A core–satellite structured type II heterojunction photocatalyst with enhanced CO2 reduction under visible light. Nano Res. 2022, 15, 8880–8889.
DOI Google Scholar
[45]

Tian, F. Y.; Zhang, H. L.; Liu, S.; Wu, T.; Yu, J. H.; Wang, D. H.; Jin, X. B.; Peng, C. Visible-light-driven CO2 reduction to ethylene on CdS: Enabled by structural relaxation-induced intermediate dimerization and enhanced by ZIF-8 coating. Appl. Catal. B:Environ. 2021, 285, 119834.
DOI Google Scholar
[46]

Shi, H. N.; Wang, H. Z.; Zhou, Y. C.; Li, J. H.; Zhai, P. L.; Li, X. Y.; Gurzadyan, G. G.; Hou, J. G.; Yang, H.; Guo, X. W. Atomically dispersed indium-copper dual-metal active sites promoting C–C coupling for CO2 photoreduction to ethanol. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202208904.
DOI Google Scholar
[47]

Xie, W. K.; Li, K. J.; Liu, X. H.; Zhang, X.; Huang, H. W. P-mediated Cu-N4 sites in carbon nitride realizing CO2 photoreduction to C2H4 with selectivity modulation. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2208132.
DOI Google Scholar
[48]

Sun, H.; Lin, L.; Hua, W.; Xie, X. L.; Mu, Q. Q.; Feng, K.; Zhong, J.; Lyu, F. L.; Deng, Z.; Peng, Y. Atomically dispersed Co-Cu alloy reconstructed from metal-organic framework to promote electrochemical CO2 methanation. Nano Res. 2023, 16, 3680–3686.
DOI Google Scholar
[49]

Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y. M.; Fan, G. Z.; Song, L. Z.; Jia, G.; Huang, H. T.; Ouyang, S. X.; Ye, J. H.; Li, Z. S.; Zou, Z. G. Cooperative catalysis coupling photo-/photothermal effect to drive Sabatier reaction with unprecedented conversion and selectivity. Joule 2021, 5, 3235–3251.
DOI Google Scholar
[50]

Jia, G. R.; Sun, M. Z.; Wang, Y.; Shi, Y. B.; Zhang, L. Z.; Cui, X. Q.; Huang, B. L.; Yu, J. C. Asymmetric coupled dual-atom sites for selective photoreduction of carbon dioxide to acetic acid. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2206817.
DOI Google Scholar
[51]

Zhao, K.; Pang, W. Y.; Jiang, S. Y.; Hu, C. Y.; Liu, P. R.; Cui, D. D.; An, X. F.; Tian, B. J.; Gao, C.; Zhang, P. et al. Operando reconstruction-induced CO2 reduction activity and selectivity for cobalt-based photocatalysis. Nano Res. 2023, 16, 4812–4820.
DOI Google Scholar
[52]

Chen, C.; Wang, T.; Yan, K.; Liu, S. J.; Zhao, Y.; Li, B. X. Photocatalytic CO2 reduction on Cu single atoms incorporated in ordered macroporous TiO2 toward tunable products. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2022, 9, 4753–4767.
DOI Google Scholar
File
12274_2023_5888_MOESM1_ESM.pdf (2.2 MB)
Publication history
Copyright
Acknowledgements

Publication history

Received: 25 April 2023
Revised: 31 May 2023
Accepted: 01 June 2023
Published: 26 July 2023
Issue date: March 2024

Copyright

© Tsinghua University Press 2023

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

This research was financially supported by the Joint Funds of the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. LZY23B030006), the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province of China (No. LY19B010005), and the Fundamental Research Funds of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University (No. 2020Y003).

Return