Journal Home > Volume 16 , Issue 5
Nano Research 2023, 16(5): 7906-7925 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-023-5441-4
Review Article | Issue | Published: 10 March 2023

Metal-organic frameworks: Synthetic methods for industrial production

Show Author's Information Dou Ma1,2,  Xin Huang1,  Yu Zhang3,  Lu Wang1( ),  Bo Wang1,2( )
Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Ji’nan 250000, China
Beijing Institute of Technology Library, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Keywords:
metal-organic frameworks, synthetic methods, scale-up, crystallization mechanisms
Topics:
Synthesis
Cite this article:
Ma D, Huang X, Zhang Y, et al. Metal-organic frameworks: Synthetic methods for industrial production. Nano Research, 2023, 16(5): 7906-7925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-023-5441-4
Download citation
EndNote(RIS)
BibTeX

3926

Views

246

Downloads

Citations

18

Crossref

11

WoS

14

Scopus

2

CSCD

Abstract Full text About this article

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which are constructed by metal ions or clusters with organic ligands, have shown great potential in gas storage and separation, luminescence, catalysis, drug delivery, sensing, and so on. More than 20,000 MOFs have been reported by adjusting the composition and reaction conditions, and most of them were synthesized by hydrothermal or solvothermal methods. The conventional solvothermal methods are favorable for the slow crystallization of MOFs to obtain single crystals or highly crystalline powders, which are suitable for the structure analysis. However, their harsh synthesis conditions, long reaction time, and difficulty in continuous synthesis limit their scale-up in industrial production and application. Meanwhile, shaping or processing is also required to bring MOF crystals and powders into the market. Therefore, this review demonstrates the crystallization mechanisms of MOFs to understand how the synthetic parameters affect the final products. Additionally, a variety of promising synthetic routes which can be used for large scale synthesis were reviewed in details. Lastly, the prospects of MOF shaping and processing are provided to promote their industrial application.


menu
Abstract
Full text
Outline
About this article

Metal-organic frameworks: Synthetic methods for industrial production

Show Author's information Dou Ma1,2, Xin Huang1, Yu Zhang3, Lu Wang1( ), Bo Wang1,2( )
Frontiers Science Center for High Energy Material, Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Advanced Technology Research Institute (Jinan), Beijing Institute of Technology, Ji’nan 250000, China
Beijing Institute of Technology Library, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

Abstract

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which are constructed by metal ions or clusters with organic ligands, have shown great potential in gas storage and separation, luminescence, catalysis, drug delivery, sensing, and so on. More than 20,000 MOFs have been reported by adjusting the composition and reaction conditions, and most of them were synthesized by hydrothermal or solvothermal methods. The conventional solvothermal methods are favorable for the slow crystallization of MOFs to obtain single crystals or highly crystalline powders, which are suitable for the structure analysis. However, their harsh synthesis conditions, long reaction time, and difficulty in continuous synthesis limit their scale-up in industrial production and application. Meanwhile, shaping or processing is also required to bring MOF crystals and powders into the market. Therefore, this review demonstrates the crystallization mechanisms of MOFs to understand how the synthetic parameters affect the final products. Additionally, a variety of promising synthetic routes which can be used for large scale synthesis were reviewed in details. Lastly, the prospects of MOF shaping and processing are provided to promote their industrial application.

Keywords: metal-organic frameworks, synthetic methods, scale-up, crystallization mechanisms

References(137)

[1]

Getman, R. B.; Bae, Y. S.; Wilmer, C. E.; Snurr, R. Q. Review and analysis of molecular simulations of methane, hydrogen, and acetylene storage in metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 703–723.
DOI Google Scholar
[2]

Murray, L. J.; Dincă, M.; Long, J. R. Hydrogen storage in metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 1294–1314.
DOI Google Scholar
[3]

Adil, K.; Belmabkhout, Y.; Pillai, R. S.; Cadiau, A.; Bhatt, P. M.; Assen, A. H.; Maurin, G.; Eddaoudi, M. Gas/vapour separation using ultra-microporous metal-organic frameworks: Insights into the structure/separation relationship. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3402–3430.
DOI Google Scholar
[4]

Lin, R. B.; Xiang, S. C.; Xing, H. B.; Zhou, W.; Chen, B. L. Exploration of porous metal-organic frameworks for gas separation and purification. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2019, 378, 87–103.
DOI Google Scholar
[5]

Cadiau, A.; Adil, K.; Bhatt, P. M.; Belmabkhout, Y.; Eddaoudi, M. A metal-organic framework-based splitter for separating propylene from propane. Science 2016, 353, 137–140.
DOI Google Scholar
[6]

Allendorf, M. D.; Bauer, C. A.; Bhakta, R. K.; Houk, R. J. T. Luminescent metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 1330–1352.
DOI Google Scholar
[7]

Yang, Q. H.; Xu, Q.; Jiang, H. L. Metal-organic frameworks meet metal nanoparticles: Synergistic effect for enhanced catalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 4774–4808.
DOI Google Scholar
[8]

Xiao, J. D.; Jiang, H. L. Metal-organic frameworks for photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis. Acc. Chem. Res. 2019, 52, 356–366.
DOI Google Scholar
[9]

Sui, J.; Liu, H.; Hu, S. J.; Sun, K.; Wan, G.; Zhou, H.; Zheng, X.; Jiang, H. L. A general strategy to immobilize single-atom catalysts in metal-organic frameworks for enhanced photocatalysis. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2109203.
DOI Google Scholar
[10]

Velásquez-Hernández, M. D. J.; Linares-Moreau, M.; Astria, E.; Carraro, F.; Alyami, M. Z.; Khashab, N. M.; Sumby, C. J.; Doonan, C. J.; Falcaro, P. Towards applications of bioentities@MOFs in biomedicine. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2021, 429, 213651.
DOI Google Scholar
[11]

Liang, W. B.; Wied, P.; Carraro, F.; Sumby, C. J.; Nidetzky, B.; Tsung, C. K.; Falcaro, P.; Doonan, C. J. Metal-organic framework-based enzyme biocomposites. Chem. Rev. 2021, 121, 1077–1129.
DOI Google Scholar
[12]

Peralta, R. A.; Huxley, M. T.; Evans, J. D.; Fallon, T.; Cao, H. J.; He, M. X.; Zhao, X. S.; Agnoli, S.; Sumby, C. J.; Doonan, C. J. Highly active gas phase organometallic catalysis supported within metal-organic framework pores. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2020, 142, 13533–13543.
DOI Google Scholar
[13]

Lustig, W. P.; Mukherjee, S.; Rudd, N. D.; Desai, A. V.; Li, J.; Ghosh, S. K. Metal-organic frameworks: Functional luminescent and photonic materials for sensing applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3242–3285.
DOI Google Scholar
[14]

Lamer, V. K.; Dinegar, R. H. Theory, production and mechanism of formation of monodispersed hydrosols. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1950, 72, 4847–4854.
DOI Google Scholar
[15]

Feng, L.; Wang, K. Y.; Powell, J.; Zhou, H. C. Controllable synthesis of metal-organic frameworks and their hierarchical assemblies. Matter 2019, 1, 801–824.
DOI Google Scholar
[16]

Sosso, G. C.; Chen, J.; Cox, S. J.; Fitzner, M.; Pedevilla, P.; Zen, A.; Michaelides, A. Crystal nucleation in liquids: Open questions and future challenges in molecular dynamics simulations. Chem. Rev. 2016, 116, 7078–7116.
DOI Google Scholar
[17]
Mullin, J. W. Crystallization, 4th ed.; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, 2001.
[18]

Van Vleet, M. J.; Weng, T. T.; Li, X. Y.; Schmidt, J. R. In situ, time-resolved, and mechanistic studies of metal-organic framework nucleation and growth. Chem. Rev. 2018, 118, 3681–3721.
DOI Google Scholar
[19]

Karthika, S.; Radhakrishnan, T. K.; Kalaichelvi, P. A review of classical and nonclassical nucleation theories. Cryst. Growth Des. 2016, 16, 6663–6681.
DOI Google Scholar
[20]

Xu, H. Q.; Wang, K. C.; Ding, M. L.; Feng, D. W.; Jiang, H. L.; Zhou, H. C. Seed-mediated synthesis of metal-organic frameworks. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 5316–5320.
DOI Google Scholar
[21]

Liu, S. Y.; Zhang, Y.; Meng, Y.; Gao, F.; Jiao, S. J.; Ke, Y. C. Fast syntheses of MOFs using nanosized zeolite crystal seeds in situ generated from microsized zeolites. Cryst. Growth Des. 2013, 13, 2697–2702.
DOI Google Scholar
[22]

Mitsuka, Y.; Nagashima, K.; Kobayashi, H.; Kitagawa, H. A seed-mediated spray-drying method for fcile syntheses of Zr-MOF and a pillared-layer-type MOF. Chem. Lett. 2016, 45, 1313–1315.
DOI Google Scholar
[23]

Lim, I. H.; Schrader, W.; Schüth, F. Insights into the molecularassembly of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks by ESI-MS. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 3088–3095.
DOI Google Scholar
[24]

Patterson, J. P.; Abellan, P.; Denny, M. S. Jr.; Park, C.; Browning, N. D.; Cohen, S. M.; Evans, J. E.; Gianneschi, N. C. Observing the growth of metal-organic frameworks by in situ liquid cell transmission electron microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 7322–7328.
DOI Google Scholar
[25]

Liu, X. W.; Chee, S. W.; Raj, S.; Sawczyk, M.; Král, P.; Mirsaidov, U. Three-step nucleation of metal-organic framework nanocrystals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021, 118, e2008880118.
DOI Google Scholar
[26]

Xing, J. F.; Schweighauser, L.; Okada, S.; Harano, K.; Nakamura, E. Atomistic structures and dynamics of prenucleation clusters in MOF-2 and MOF-5 syntheses. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 3608.
DOI Google Scholar
[27]

Burton, W. K.; Cabrera, N.; Frank, F. C. The growth of crystals and the equilibrium structure of their surfaces. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Ser. A Mathemat. Phys. Sci. 1951, 243, 299–358.
DOI Google Scholar
[28]
Cubillas, P.; Anderson, M. W. Zeolites and Catalysis; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2010; pp 1–55.
[29]

Lovette, M. A.; Browning, A. R.; Griffin, D. W.; Sizemore, J. P.; Snyder, R. C.; Doherty, M. F. Crystal shape engineering. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2008, 47, 9812–9833.
DOI Google Scholar
[30]

Van Santen, R. A. The ostwald step rule. J. Phys. Chem. 1984, 88, 5768–5769.
DOI Google Scholar
[31]

Voorhees, P. W. The theory of ostwald ripening. J. Stat. Phys. 1985, 38, 231–252.
DOI Google Scholar
[32]

Venna, S. R.; Jasnski, J. B.; Carreon M. A. Structural evolution of zeolitic imidazolate framework-8. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 18030–18033.
DOI Google Scholar
[33]

De Yoreo, J. J.; Gilbert, P. U. P. A.; Sommerdijk, N. A. J. M.; Penn, R. L.; Whitelam, S.; Joester, D.; Zhang, H. Z.; Rimer, J. D.; Navrotsky, A.; Banfield, J. F. et al. Crystallization by particle attachment in synthetic, biogenic, and geologic environments. Science 2015, 349, aaa6760.
DOI Google Scholar
[34]

Han, J. L.; He, X. D.; Liu, J.; Ming, R. J.; Lin, M. H.; Li, H.; Zhou, X. C.; Deng, H. X. Determining factors in the growth of MOF single crystals unveiled by in situ interface imaging. Chem 2022, 8, 1637–1657.
DOI Google Scholar
[35]

Seoane, B.; Castellanos, S.; Dikhtiarenko, A.; Kapteijn, F.; Gascon, J. Multi-scale crystal engineering of metal organic frameworks. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2016, 307, 147–187.
DOI Google Scholar
[36]

Chin, J. M.; Chen, E. Y.; Menon, A. G.; Tan, H. Y.; Hor, A. T. S.; Schreyer, M. K.; Xu, J. W. Tuning the aspect ratio of NH2-MIL-53(Al) microneedles and nanorodsvia coordination modulation. CrystEngComm 2013, 15, 654–657.
DOI Google Scholar
[37]

Cravillon, J.; Nayuk, R.; Springer, S.; Feldhoff, A.; Huber, K.; Wiebcke, M. Controlling zeolitic imidazolate framework nano- and microcrystal formation: Insight into crystal growth by time-resolved in situ static light scattering. Chem. Mater. 2011, 23, 2130–2141.
DOI Google Scholar
[38]

Schaate, A.; Roy, P.; Godt, A.; Lippke, J.; Waltz, F.; Wiebcke, M.; Behrens, P. Modulated synthesis of Zr-based metal-organic frameworks: From nano to single crystals. Chem. —Eur. J. 2011, 17, 6643–6651.
DOI Google Scholar
[39]

Bentz, K. C.; Ayala, S.; Kalaj, M.; Cohen, S. M.; Bentz, K. C.; Ayala, S.; Kalaj, M.; Cohen, S. M. Polyacids as modulators for the synthesis of UiO-66. Aust. J. Chem. 2019, 72, 848–851.
DOI Google Scholar
[40]

Gong, X.; Shu, Y. F.; Jiang, Z.; Lu, L. X.; Xu, X. H.; Wang, C.; Deng, H. X. Metal-organic frameworks for the exploitation of distance between active sites in efficient photocatalysis. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 5326–5331.
DOI Google Scholar
[41]

Liu, X. Y.; Liu, B.; Li, G. H.; Liu, Y. L. Two anthracene-based metal-organic frameworks for highly effective photodegradation and luminescent detection in water. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018, 6, 17177–17185.
DOI Google Scholar
[42]

Henkelis, S. E.; Vornholt, S. M.; Cordes, D. B.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Wheatley, P. S.; Morris, R. E. A single crystal study of CPO-27 and UTSA-74 for nitric oxide storage and release. CrystEngComm 2019, 21, 1857–1861.
DOI Google Scholar
[43]

Umemura, A.; Diring, S.; Furukawa, S.; Uehara, H.; Tsuruoka, T.; Kitagawa, S. Morphology design of porous coordination polymer crystals by coordination modulation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 15506–15513.
DOI Google Scholar
[44]

Chen, Y. F.; Zhang, S. H.; Chen, F.; Cao, S. J.; Cai, Y.; Li, S. Q.; Ma, H. W.; Ma, X. J.; Li, P. F.; Huang, X. Q. et al. Defect engineering of highly stable lanthanide metal-organic frameworks by particle modulation for coating catalysis. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018, 6, 342–348.
DOI Google Scholar
[45]

Wu, H.; Chua, Y. S.; Krungleviciute, V.; Tyagi, M.; Chen, P.; Yildirim, T.; Zhou, W. Unusual and highly tunable missing-linker defects in zirconium metal-organic framework UiO-66 and their important effects on gas adsorption. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 10525–10532.
DOI Google Scholar
[46]

Cai, G. R.; Jiang, H. L. A modulator-induced defect-formation strategy to hierarchically porous metal-organic frameworks with high stability. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2017, 56, 563–567.
DOI Google Scholar
[47]

Ma, X.; Wang, L.; Zhang, Q.; Jiang, H. L. Switching on the photocatalysis of metal-organic frameworks by engineering structural defects. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2019, 58, 12175–12179.
DOI Google Scholar
[48]

Feng, X.; Hajek, J.; Jena, H. S.; Wang, G. B.; Veerapandian, S. K. P.; Morent, R.; De Geyter, N.; Leyssens, K.; Hoffman, A. E. J.; Meynen, V. et al. Engineering a highly defective stable UiO-66 with tunable Lewis-Bronsted acidity: The role of the hemilabile linker. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2020, 142, 3174–3183.
DOI Google Scholar
[49]

Stock, N.; Biswas, S. Synthesis of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs): Routes to various MOF topologies, morphologies, and composites. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 933–969.
DOI Google Scholar
[50]

Howarth, A. J.; Peters, A. W.; Vermeulen, N. A.; Wang, T. C.; Hupp, J. T.; Farha, O. K. Best practices for the synthesis, activation, and characterization of metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 26–39.
DOI Google Scholar
[51]

Cohen, S. M. Postsynthetic methods for the functionalization of metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 970–1000.
DOI Google Scholar
[52]

Rabenau, A. The role of hydrothermal synthesis in preparative chemistry. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 1985, 24, 1026–1040.
DOI Google Scholar
[53]

Burrows, A. D.; Cassar, K.; Düren, T.; Friend, R. M.; Mahon, M. F.; Rigby, S. P.; Savarese, T. L. Syntheses, structures and properties of cadmium benzenedicarboxylate metal-organic frameworks. Dalton Trans. 2008, 2465–2474.
DOI Google Scholar
[54]

Rowsell, J. L. C.; Yaghi, O. M. Metal-organic frameworks: A new class of porous materials. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2004, 73, 3–14.
DOI Google Scholar
[55]

Deng, H. X.; Grunder, S.; Cordova, K. E.; Valente, C.; Furukawa, H.; Hmadeh, M.; Gándara, F.; Whalley, A. C.; Liu, Z.; Asahina, S. et al. Large-pore apertures in a series of metal-organic frameworks. Science 2012, 336, 1018–1023.
DOI Google Scholar
[56]

Ojha, R. P.; Lemieux, P. A.; Dixon, P. K.; Liu, A. J.; Durian, D. J. Statistical mechanics of a gas-fluidized particle. Nature 2004, 427, 521–523.
DOI Google Scholar
[57]

Férey, G.; Mellot-Draznieks, C.; Serre, C.; Millange, F.; Dutour, J.; Surblé, S.; Margiolaki, I. A chromium terephthalate-based solid with unusually large pore volumes and surface area. Science 2005, 309, 2040–2042.
DOI Google Scholar
[58]

Kandiah, M.; Nilsen, M. H.; Usseglio, S.; Jakobsen, S.; Olsbye, U.; Tilset, M.; Larabi, C.; Quadrelli, E. A.; Bonino, F.; Lillerud, K. P. Synthesis and stability of tagged UiO-66 Zr-MOFs. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22, 6632–6640.
DOI Google Scholar
[59]

Zou, L. F.; Feng, D. W.; Liu, T. F.; Chen, Y. P.; Yuan, S.; Wang, K. C.; Wang, X.; Fordham, S.; Zhou, H. C. A versatile synthetic route for the preparation of titanium metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Sci. 2016, 7, 1063–1069.
DOI Google Scholar
[60]

Andreo, J.; Priola, E.; Alberto, G.; Benzi, P.; Marabello, D.; Proserpio, D. M.; Lamberti, C.; Diana, E. Autoluminescent metal-organic frameworks (MOFs): Self-photoemission of a highly stable thorium MOF. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 14144–14149.
DOI Google Scholar
[61]

Sanii, R.; Hua, C.; Patyk-Kaźmierczak, E.; Zaworotko, M. J. Solvent-directed control over the topology of entanglement in square lattice (sql) coordination networks. Chem. Commun. 2019, 55, 1454–1457.
DOI Google Scholar
[62]

Xie, L. S.; Alexandrov, E. V.; Skorupskii, G.; Proserpio, D. M.; Dincă, M. Diverse π-π stacking motifs modulate electrical conductivity in tetrathiafulvalene-based metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Sci. 2019, 10, 8558–8565.
DOI Google Scholar
[63]

Muldoon, P. F.; Liu, C.; Miller, C. C.; Koby, S. B.; Jarvi, A. G.; Luo, T. Y.; Saxena, S.; O'Keeffe, M.; Rosi, N. L. Programmable topology in new families of heterobimetallic metal-organic frameworks. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 6194–6198.
DOI Google Scholar
[64]

Fischer, S.; Roeser, J.; Lin, T. C.; DeBlock, R. H.; Lau, J.; Dunn, B. S.; Hoffmann, F.; Frçba, M.; Thomas, A.; Tolbert, S. H. A metal-organic framework with tetrahedral aluminate sites as a single-ion Li+ solid electrolyte. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 16683–16687.
DOI Google Scholar
[65]

Rubio-Martinez, M.; Avci-Camur, C.; Thornton, A. W.; Imaz, I.; Maspoch, D.; Hill, M. R. New synthetic routes towards MOF production at scale. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3453–3480.
DOI Google Scholar
[66]

Lidström, P.; Tierney, J.; Wathey, B.; Westman J. Microwave assisted organic synthesis: A review. Tetrahedron 2001, 57, 9225–9283.
DOI Google Scholar
[67]

Jhung, S. H.; Lee, J. H.; Chang, J. S. Microwave synthesis of a nanoporius hybrid material, chromium trimesate. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 2005, 26, 880–881.
DOI Google Scholar
[68]

Choi, J. S.; Son, W. J.; Kim, J.; Ahn, W. S. Metal-organic framework MOF-5 prepared by microwave heating: Factors to be considered. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2008, 116, 727–731.
DOI Google Scholar
[69]

Son, W. J.; Kim, J.; Kim, J.; Ahn, W. S. Sonochemical synthesis of MOF-5. Chem. Commun. 2008, 6336–6338.
DOI Google Scholar
[70]

Li, M. Y.; Dincă, M. Reductive electrosynthesis of crystalline metal-organic frameworks. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 12926–12929.
DOI Google Scholar
[71]

Chen, Y. F.; Li, S. Q.; Pei, X. K.; Zhou, J. W.; Feng, X.; Zhang, S. H.; Cheng, Y. Y.; Li, H. W.; Han, R. D.; Wang, B. A solvent-free hot-pressing method for preparing metal-organic-framework coatings. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 3419–3423.
DOI Google Scholar
[72]

McKinstry, C.; Cathcart, R. J.; Cussen, E. J.; Fletcher, A. J.; Patwardhan, S. V.; Sefcik, J. Scalable continuous solvothermal synthesis of metal organic framework (MOF-5) crystals. Chem. Eng. J. 2016, 285, 718–725.
DOI Google Scholar
[73]

Seo, Y. K.; Hundal, G.; Jang, I. T.; Hwang, Y. K.; Jun, C. H.; Chang, J. S. Microwave synthesis of hybrid inorganic-organic materials including porous Cu3(BTC)2 from Cu(II)-trimesate mixture. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2009, 119, 331–337.
DOI Google Scholar
[74]

Li, Z. Q.; Qiu, L. G.; Xu, T.; Wu, Y.; Wang, W.; Wu, Z. Y.; Jiang, X. Ultrasonic synthesis of the microporous metal-organic framework Cu3(BTC)2 at ambient temperature and pressure: An efficient and environmentally friendly method. Mater. Lett. 2009, 63, 78–80.
DOI Google Scholar
[75]

Nawrocki, J.; Prochowicz, D.; Wiśniewski, A.; Justyniak, I.; Goś, P.; Lewiński, J. Development of an SBU-based mechanochemical approach for drug-loaded MOFs. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2020, 2020, 796–800.
DOI Google Scholar
[76]

Crawford, D.; Casaban, J.; Haydon, R.; Giri, N.; McNally, T.; James, S. L. Synthesis by extrusion: Continuous, large-scale preparation of MOFs using little or no solvent. Chem. Sci. 2015, 6, 1645–1649.
DOI Google Scholar
[77]

Carné-Sánchez, A.; Imaz, I.; Cano-Sarabia, M.; Maspoch, D. A spray-drying strategy for synthesis of nanoscale metal-organic frameworks and their assembly into hollow superstructures. Nat. Chem. 2013, 5, 203–211.
DOI Google Scholar
[78]

Ameloot, R.; Vermoortele, F.; Vanhove, W.; Roeffaers, M. B. J.; Sels, B. F.; De Vos, D. E. Interfacial synthesis of hollow metal-organic framework capsules demonstrating selective permeability. Nat. Chem. 2011, 3, 382–387.
DOI Google Scholar
[79]

Yang, D. A.; Cho, H. Y.; Kim, J.; Yang, S. T.; Ahn, W. S. CO2 capture and conversion using Mg-MOF-74 prepared by a sonochemical method. Energy Environ. Sci. 2012, 5, 6465–6473.
DOI Google Scholar
[80]

Wu, X. F.; Bao, Z. B.; Yuan, B.; Wang, J.; Sun, Y. Q.; Luo, H. M.; Deng, S. G. Microwave synthesis and characterization of MOF-74 (M = Ni, Mg) for gas separation. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2013, 180, 114–122.
DOI Google Scholar
[81]

Ayoub, G.; Karadeniz, B.; Howarth, A. J.; Farha, O. K.; Đilović, I.; Germann, L. S.; Dinnebier, R. E.; Užarević, K.; Friščić, T. Rational synthesis of mixed-metal microporous metal-organic frameworks with controlled composition using mechanochemistry. Chem. Mater. 2019, 31, 5494–5501.
DOI Google Scholar
[82]

Cavka, J. H.; Jakobsen, S.; Olsbye, U.; Guillou, N.; Lamberti, C.; Bordiga, S.; Lillerud, K. P. A New zirconium inorganic building brick forming metal organic frameworks with exceptional stability. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 13850–13851.
DOI Google Scholar
[83]

Karadeniz, B.; Howarth, A. J.; Stolar, T.; Islamoglu, T.; Dejanović, I.; Tireli, M.; Wasson, M. C.; Moon, S. Y.; Farha, O. K.; Friščić, T. et al. Benign by design: Green and scalable synthesis of zirconium UiO-metal-organic frameworks by water-assisted mechanochemistry. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 15841–15849.
DOI Google Scholar
[84]

Avci-Camur, C.; Troyano, J.; Pérez-Carvajal, J.; Legrand, A.; Farrusseng, D.; Imaz, I.; Maspoch, D. Aqueous production of spherical Zr-MOF beads via continuous-flow spray-drying. Green Chem. 2018, 20, 873–878.
DOI Google Scholar
[85]

Taddei, M.; Steitz, D. A.; Van Bokhoven, J. A.; Ranocchiari, M. Continuous-flow microwave synthesis of metal-organic frameworks: A highly efficient method for large-scale production. Chem. —Eur. J. 2016, 22, 3245–3249.
DOI Google Scholar
[86]

Park, K. S.; Ni, Z.; Côté, A. P.; Choi, J. Y.; Huang, R. D.; Uribe-Romo, F. J.; Chae, H. K.; O'Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. Exceptional chemical and thermal stability of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 10186–10191.
DOI Google Scholar
[87]

Chaemchuen, S.; Zhou, K.; Mousavi, B.; Ghadamyari, M.; Heynderickx, P. M.; Zhuiykov, S.; Yusubov, M. S.; Verpoort, F. Spray drying of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks: Investigation of crystal formation and properties. CrystEngComm 2018, 20, 3601–3608.
DOI Google Scholar
[88]

Polyzoidis, A.; Altenburg, T.; Schwarzer, M.; Loebbecke, S.; Kaskel, S. Continuous microreactor synthesis of ZIF-8 with high space-time-yield and tunable particle size. Chem. Eng. J. 2016, 283, 971–977.
DOI Google Scholar
[89]

Laybourn, A.; Katrib, J.; Ferrari-John, R. S.; Morris, C. G.; Yang, S. H.; Udoudo, O.; Easun, T. L.; Dodds, C.; Champness, N. R.; Kingman, S. W. et al. Metal-organic frameworks in seconds via selective microwave heating. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 7333–7338.
DOI Google Scholar
[90]

Ni, Z.; Masel, R. I. Rapid production of metal-organic frameworks via microwave-assisted solvothermal synthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 12394–12395.
DOI Google Scholar
[91]

Liu, B. T.; He, Y. P.; Han, L. P.; Singh, V.; Xu, X. N.; Guo, T.; Meng, F. Y.; Xu, X.; York, P.; Liu, Z. X. et al. Microwave-assisted rapid synthesis of γ-cyclodextrin metal-organic frameworks for size control and efficient drug loading. Cryst. Growth Des. 2017, 17, 1654–1660.
DOI Google Scholar
[92]

Jiang, Z. W.; Zou, Y. C.; Zhao, T. T.; Zhen, S. J.; Li, Y. F.; Huang, C. Z. Controllable synthesis of porphyrin-based 2D lanthanide metal-organic frameworks with thickness- and metal-node-dependent photocatalytic performance. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 3300–3306.
DOI Google Scholar
[93]

Haque, E.; Khan, N. A.; Park, J. H.; Jhung, S. H. Synthesis of a metal-organic framework material, iron terephthalate, by ultrasound, microwave, and conventional electric heating: A kinetic study. Chem. —Eur. J. 2010, 16, 1046–1052.
DOI Google Scholar
[94]

Dreischarf, A. C.; Lammert, M.; Stock, N.; Reinsch, H. Green synthesis of Zr-CAU-28: Structure and properties of the first Zr-MOF based on 2, 5-furandicarboxylic acid. Inorg. Chem. 2017, 56, 2270–2277.
DOI Google Scholar
[95]

Jacobsen, J.; Achenbach, B.; Reinsch, H.; Smolders, S.; Lange, F. D.; Friedrichs, G.; De Vos, D.; Stock, N. The first water-based synthesis of Ce(IV)-MOFs with saturated chiral and achiral C4-dicarboxylate linkers. Dalton Trans. 2019, 48, 8433–8441.
DOI Google Scholar
[96]

Lee, Y. R.; Kim, J.; Ahn, W. S. Synthesis of metal-organic frameworks: A mini review. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2013, 30, 1667–1680.
DOI Google Scholar
[97]

Suslick, K. S.; Hammerton, D. A.; Cline, R. E. Jr. Sonochemical hot spot. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1986, 108, 5641–5642.
DOI Google Scholar
[98]

Qiu, L. G.; Li, Z. Q.; Wu, Y.; Wang, W.; Xu, T.; Jiang, X. Facile synthesis of nanocrystals of a microporous metal-organic framework by an ultrasonic method and selective sensing of organoamines. Chem. Commun. 2008, 3642–3644.
DOI Google Scholar
[99]

Vaitsis, C.; Sourkouni, G.; Argirusis, C. Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and ultrasound: A review. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2019, 52, 106–119.
DOI Google Scholar
[100]

Zhao, S. L.; Wang, Y.; Dong, J. C.; He, C. T.; Yin, H. J.; An, P. F.; Zhao, K.; Zhang, X. F.; Gao, C.; Zhang, L. J. et al. Ultrathin metal-organic framework nanosheets for electrocatalytic oxygen evolution. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 16184.
DOI Google Scholar
[101]

Li, C.; Hu, X. S.; Tong, W.; Yan, W. S.; Lou, X. B.; Shen, M.; Hu, B. W. Ultrathin manganese-based metal-organic framework nanosheets: Low-cost and energy-dense lithium storage anodes with the coexistence of metal and ligand redox activities. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 29829–29838.
DOI Google Scholar
[102]

Ning, Y. Q.; Lou, X. B.; Li, C.; Hu, X. S.; Hu, B. W. Ultrathin cobalt-based metal-organic framework nanosheets with both metal and ligand redox activities for superior lithium storage. Chem. —Eur. J. 2017, 23, 15984–15990.
DOI Google Scholar
[103]

Yuan, M. W.; Wang, R.; Fu, W. B.; Lin, L.; Sun, Z. M.; Long, X. G.; Zhang, S. T.; Nan, C. Y.; Sun, G. B.; Li, H. F. et al. Ultrathin two-dimensional metal-organic framework nanosheets with the inherent open active sites as electrocatalysts in aprotic Li-O2 batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 11403–11413.
DOI Google Scholar
[104]

Kim, J.; Yang, S. T.; Choi, S. B.; Sim, J.; Kim, J.; Ahn, W. S. Control of catenation in CuTATB-n metal-organic frameworks by sonochemical synthesis and its effect on CO2 adsorption. J. Mater. Chem. 2011, 21, 3070–3076.
DOI Google Scholar
[105]

Li, J. X.; Li, Y. H.; Qin, Z. B.; Dong, G. Y. Ultrasound assisted synthesis of a zinc(II) coordination polymer with nano-flower morphology and the use as precursor for zinc(II) oxide nanoparticles. Polyhedron 2018, 155, 94–101.
DOI Google Scholar
[106]
Mueller, U.; Puetter, H.; Hesse, M.; Wessel, H.W. Method for electrochemical production of a crystalline porous metal organic skeleton material. WO 2005/049892, February 6, 2005.
[107]

Wei, J. Z.; Wang, X. L.; Sun, X. J.; Hou, Y.; Zhang, X.; Yang, D. D.; Dong, H.; Zhang, F. M. Rapid and large-scale synthesis of IRMOF-3 by electrochemistry method with enhanced fluorescence detection performance for TNP. Inorg. Chem. 2018, 57, 3818–3824.
DOI Google Scholar
[108]

Wei, J. Z.; Gong, F. X.; Sun, X. J.; Li, Y.; Zhang, T.; Zhao, X. J.; Zhang, F. M. Rapid and low-cost electrochemical synthesis of UiO-66-NH2 with enhanced fluorescence detection performance. Inorg. Chem. 2019, 58, 6742–6747.
DOI Google Scholar
[109]

Kang, X. C.; Lyu, K.; Li, L. L.; Li, J. N.; Kimberley, L.; Wang, B.; Liu, L. F.; Cheng, Y. Q.; Frogley, M. D.; Rudić, S. et al. Integration of mesopores and crystal defects in metal-organic frameworks via templated electrosynthesis. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 4466.
DOI Google Scholar
[110]

Li, W. J.; Tu, M.; Cao, R.; Fischer, R. A. Metal-organic framework thin films: Electrochemical fabrication techniques and corresponding applications & perspectives. J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 12356–12369.
DOI Google Scholar
[111]

Li, W. J.; Lü, J.; Gao, S. Y.; Li, Q. H.; Cao, R. Electrochemical preparation of metal-organic framework films for fast detection of nitro explosives. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2, 19473–19478.
DOI Google Scholar
[112]

Li, M. Y.; Dincă, M. Selective formation of biphasic thin films of metal-organic frameworks by potential-controlled cathodic electrodeposition. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 107–111.
DOI Google Scholar
[113]

Liu, Y. X.; Wei, Y. N.; Liu, M. H.; Bai, Y. C.; Wang, X. Y.; Shang, S. C.; Chen, J. Y.; Liu, Y. Q. Electrochemical synthesis of large area two-dimensional metal-organic framework films on copper anodes. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 2887–2891.
DOI Google Scholar
[114]

Zhou, S.; Shekhah, O.; Jia, J. T.; Czaban-Jóźwiak, J.; Bhatt, P. M.; Ramírez, A.; Gascon, J.; Eddaoudi, M. Electrochemical synthesis of continuous metal-organic framework membranes for separation of hydrocarbons. Nat. Energy 2021, 6, 882–891.
DOI Google Scholar
[115]

Pichon, A.; Lazuen-Garay, A.; James, S. L. Solvent-free synthesis of a microporous metal-organic framework. CrystEngComm 2006, 8, 211–214.
DOI Google Scholar
[116]

Li, R.; Ren, X. Q.; Zhao, J. S.; Feng, X.; Jiang, X.; Fan, X. X.; Lin, Z. G.; Li, X. G.; Hu, C. W.; Wang, B. Polyoxometallates trapped in a zeolitic imidazolate framework leading to high uptake and selectivity of bioactive molecules. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2, 2168–2173.
DOI Google Scholar
[117]

Fidelli, A. M.; Karadeniz, B.; Howarth, A. J.; Huskić, I.; Germann, L. S.; Halasz, I.; Etter, M.; Moon, S. Y.; Dinnebier, R. E.; Stilinović, V. et al. Green and rapid mechanosynthesis of high-porosity NU- and UiO-type metal-organic frameworks. Chem. Commun. 2018, 54, 6999–7002.
DOI Google Scholar
[118]

Karadeniz, B.; Žilić, D.; Huskić, I.; Germann, L. S.; Fidelli, A. M.; Muratović, S.; Lončarić, I.; Etter, M.; Dinnebier, R. E.; Barišić, D. et al. Controlling the polymorphism and topology transformation in porphyrinic zirconium metal-organic frameworks via mechanochemistry. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 19214–19220.
DOI Google Scholar
[119]

Lee, H. K.; Lee, J. H.; Moon, H. R. Mechanochemistry as a reconstruction tool of decomposed metal-organic frameworks. Inorg. Chem. 2021, 60, 11825–11829.
DOI Google Scholar
[120]

Crawford, D. E.; Casaban, J. Recent developments in mechanochemical materials synthesis by extrusion. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 5747–5754.
DOI Google Scholar
[121]

Darwish, S.; Wang, S. Q.; Croker, D. M.; Walker, G. M.; Zaworotko, M. J. Comparison of mechanochemistry vs solution methods for synthesis of 4,4'-bipyridine-based coordination polymers. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 19505–19512.
DOI Google Scholar
[122]

Abramova, A.; Couzon, N.; Leloire, M.; Nerisson, P.; Cantrel, L.; Royer, S.; Loiseau, T.; Volkringer, C.; Dhainaut, J. Extrusion-spheronization of UiO-66 and UiO-66_NH2 into robust-shaped solids and their use for gaseous molecular iodine, xenon, and krypton adsorption. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 10669–10680.
DOI Google Scholar
[123]

Quan, Y. F.; Shen, R. Q.; Ma, R.; Zhang, Z. R.; Wang, Q. S. Sustainable and efficient manufacturing of metal-organic framework-based polymer nanocomposites by reactive extrusion. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2022, 10, 7216–7222.
DOI Google Scholar
[124]

Ma, X. J.; Chai, Y. T.; Li, P.; Wang, B. Metal-organic framework films and their potential applications in environmental pollution control. Acc. Chem. Res. 2019, 1461–1470.
DOI Google Scholar
[125]

Chen, Y. F.; Zhang, S. H.; Cao, S. J.; Li, S. Q.; Chen, F.; Yuan, S.; Xu, C.; Zhou, J. W.; Feng, X.; Ma, X. J. et al. Roll-to-roll production of metal-organic framework coatings for particulate matter removal. Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1606221.
DOI Google Scholar
[126]

Tang, Y. J.; Chen, Y. F.; Zhu, H. J.; Zhang, A. M.; Wang, X. L.; Dong, L. Z.; Li, S. L.; Xu, Q.; Lan, Y. Q. Solid-phase hot-pressing synthesis of POMOFs on carbon cloth and derived phosphides for all pH value hydrogen evolution. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018, 6, 21969–21977.
DOI Google Scholar
[127]

Li, G. P.; Cao, F.; Zhang, K.; Hou, L.; Gao, R. C.; Zhang, W. Y.; Wang, Y. Y. Design of anti-UV radiation textiles with self-assembled metal-organic framework coating. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 7, 1901525.
DOI Google Scholar
[128]

Li, P.; Li, J. Z.; Feng, X.; Li, J.; Hao, Y. C.; Zhang, J. W.; Wang, H.; Yin, A. X.; Zhou, J. W.; Ma, X. J. et al. Metal-organic frameworks with photocatalytic bactericidal activity for integrated air cleaning. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 2177.
DOI Google Scholar
[129]

Wang, H.; Zhao, S.; Liu, Y.; Yao, R. X.; Wang, X. Q.; Cao, Y. H.; Ma, D.; Zou, M. C.; Cao, A. Y.; Feng, X. et al. Membrane adsorbers with ultrahigh metal-organic framework loading for high flux separations. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 4204.
DOI Google Scholar
[130]

Gauvin, W. H.; Katta, S. Basic concepts of spray dryer design. AIChE J. 1976, 22, 713–724.
DOI Google Scholar
[131]

Garzón-Tovar, L.; Cano-Sarabia, M.; Carné-Sánchez, A.; Carbonell, C.; Imaz, I.; Maspoch, D. A spray-drying continuous-flow method for simultaneous synthesis and shaping of microspherical high nuclearity MOF beads. React. Chem. Eng. 2016, 1, 533–539.
DOI Google Scholar
[132]

Avci, C.; De Marco, M. L.; Byun, C.; Perrin, J.; Scheel, M.; Boissière, C.; Faustini, M. Metal-organic framework photonic balls: Single object analysis for local thermal probing. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2104450.
DOI Google Scholar
[133]

Sun, J. Z.; Kwon, H. T.; Jeong, H. K. Continuous synthesis of high quality metal-organic framework HKUST-1 crystals and composites via aerosol-assisted synthesis. Polyhedron 2018, 153, 226–233.
DOI Google Scholar
[134]

Stassen, I.; Styles, M.; Grenci, G.; Van Gorp, H.; Vanderlinden, W.; De Feyter, S.; Falcaro, P.; De Vos, D.; Vereecken, P.; Ameloot, R. Chemical vapour deposition of zeolitic imidazolate framework thin films. Nat. Mater. 2016, 15, 304–310.
DOI Google Scholar
[135]

Britton, J.; Jamison, T. F. The assembly and use of continuous flow systems for chemical synthesis. Nat. Protoc. 2017, 12, 2423–2446.
DOI Google Scholar
[136]

Albuquerque, G. H.; Fitzmorris, R. C.; Ahmadi, M.; Wannenmacher, N.; Thallapally, P. K.; McGrail, B. P.; Herman, G. S. Gas-liquid segmented flow microwave-assisted synthesis of MOF-74(Ni) under moderate pressures. CrystEngComm 2015, 17, 5502–5510.
DOI Google Scholar
[137]

Liu, X. M.; Xie, L. H.; Wu, Y. F. Recent advances in the shaping of metal-organic frameworks. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2020, 7, 2840–2866.
DOI Google Scholar
Publication history
Copyright
Acknowledgements

Publication history

Received: 06 October 2022
Revised: 29 November 2022
Accepted: 27 December 2022
Published: 10 March 2023
Issue date: May 2023

Copyright

© Tsinghua University Press 2023

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 21971017, 21901019, and 22205018), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2020YFB1506300), and Beijing Institute of Technology Research Fund Program. The authors acknowledge the Analysis and Testing Center of BIT for technical supports.

Return