@article{Pei2025, 
author = {Zhi Pei and Chunlei Hong and Fen Xia and Chao Wang},
title = {An Innovative Algorithm for Attacking Symmetric Ciphers Using D-Wave Quantum Annealing},
year = {2025},
journal = {Tsinghua Science and Technology},
volume = {30},
number = {5},
pages = {2184-2194},
keywords = {quantum computing, quantum annealing, D-Wave, symmetric cipher},
url = {https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/TST.2024.9010231},
doi = {10.26599/TST.2024.9010231},
abstract = {Quantum computing is generally considered non-threatening to symmetric ciphers. Quantum attacks on symmetric ciphers require a thorough analysis of their internal structures, posing considerable difficulties and challenges. As of 2023, Google’s quantum supremacy chip, Sycamore, is still incapable of cryptanalysis. Leveraging D-Wave’s quantum annealing exploits the unique quantum tunneling effect, providing an edge in solving combinatorial optimization problems. It can be regarded as a class of artificial intelligence algorithm that can achieve global optimization. We propose a quantum heuristic symmetric cipher attack algorithm for substitution-permutation network (SPN) symmetric ciphers, which transforms the plaintext-ciphertext propagation rules within SPN structure into the problem of solving a constrained quadratic model (CQM). A novel reduction algorithm is employed to eliminate redundant constraint conditions. The D-Wave Advantage quantum computer is used to recover the encryption sub-keys. Using the quantum approximate optimization algorithm, IBM Q Experience can only recover two rounds of the Heys Cipher sub-key, whereas D-Wave Advantage achieves complete key recovery, validating its potential in quantum symmetric cipher attacks.}
}