575
Views
11
Downloads
111
Crossref
N/A
WoS
103
Scopus
0
CSCD
The circumboreal forest encompasses diverse landscape structures, dynamics and forest age distributions determined by their physical setting, and historical and current disturbance regimes. However, due to intensifying forest utilisation, and in certain areas due to increasing natural disturbances, boreal forest age-class structures have changed rapidly, so that the proportion of old forest has substantially declined, while that of young post-harvest and post-natural-disturbance forest proportions have increased. In the future, with a warming climate in certain boreal regions, this trend may further be enhanced due to an increase in natural disturbances and large-scale use of forest biomass to replace fossil-based fuels and products.
The major drivers of change of forest age class distributions and structures include the use of clearcut short-rotation harvesting, more frequent and severe natural disturbances due to climate warming in certain regions. The decline in old forest area, and increase in managed young forest lacking natural post-disturbance structural legacies, represent a major transformation in the ecological conditions of the boreal forest beyond historical limits of variability. This may introduce a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem resilience and long-term adaptive capacity of the forest ecosystem.
To safeguard boreal forest biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and to maintain the multiple services provided to societies by this forest biome, it is pivotal to maintain an adequate share and the ecological qualities of young post-disturbance stages, along with mature forest stages with old-growth characteristics. This requires management for natural post-disturbance legacy structures, and innovative use of diverse uneven-aged and continuous cover management approaches to maintain critical late-successional forest structures in landscapes.
The circumboreal forest encompasses diverse landscape structures, dynamics and forest age distributions determined by their physical setting, and historical and current disturbance regimes. However, due to intensifying forest utilisation, and in certain areas due to increasing natural disturbances, boreal forest age-class structures have changed rapidly, so that the proportion of old forest has substantially declined, while that of young post-harvest and post-natural-disturbance forest proportions have increased. In the future, with a warming climate in certain boreal regions, this trend may further be enhanced due to an increase in natural disturbances and large-scale use of forest biomass to replace fossil-based fuels and products.
The major drivers of change of forest age class distributions and structures include the use of clearcut short-rotation harvesting, more frequent and severe natural disturbances due to climate warming in certain regions. The decline in old forest area, and increase in managed young forest lacking natural post-disturbance structural legacies, represent a major transformation in the ecological conditions of the boreal forest beyond historical limits of variability. This may introduce a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem resilience and long-term adaptive capacity of the forest ecosystem.
To safeguard boreal forest biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and to maintain the multiple services provided to societies by this forest biome, it is pivotal to maintain an adequate share and the ecological qualities of young post-disturbance stages, along with mature forest stages with old-growth characteristics. This requires management for natural post-disturbance legacy structures, and innovative use of diverse uneven-aged and continuous cover management approaches to maintain critical late-successional forest structures in landscapes.
Aakala T, Kuuluvainen T, Wallenius T, Kauhanen H (2011) Tree mortality episodes in the intact Picea abies-dominated taiga in the Archaangelsk region of northern European Russia. J Veg Sci 22:322-333
Aitken SN, Yeaman S, Holliday JA, Wang T, Curtis‐McLane S (2008). Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree populations. Evol Appl 1(1):95-111
Allen CD, Maclady AK, Chenghouni H, Bachelet D, MacDovell N, Vennetier M, Kitzberger T, Rigling A, Breshears DD, Hogg EH, Gonzalez P, Fensham R, Zhang Z, Castro J, Demidova N, Lim J-H, Allard G, Running SW, Semerco A, Cobb N (2010) A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manag 259:660-684
Andrew ME, Wulder MA, Cardille JA (2014) Protected areas in boreal Canada: a baseline and considerations for the continued development of a representative and effective reserve network. Environ Rev 22:135-160
Angelstam P, Andersson L (2001) Estimates of the needs for forest reserves in Sweden. Scand J For Res (Suppl) 3:38-51
Angers VA, Gauthier S, Drapeau P, Jayen K Bergeron Y (2011). Tree mortality and snag dynamics in North American boreal tree species after a wildfire: a long-term study. Internat J Wildl Fire: 20(6):751-763
Auvinen A-P, Hildén M, Toivonen H, Primmer E, Niemelä J, Aapala K, Bäck S, Härmä P, Ikävalko J, Järvenpää E, Kaipiainen H, Korhonen KT, Kumela H, Kärkkäinen L, Lankoski J, Laukkanen M, Mannerkoski I, Nuutinen T, Nöjd A, Punttila P, Salminen O, Söderman G, Törmä M, Virkkala R (2007) Evaluation of the Finnish National Biodiversity Action Plan 1997-2005. Monogr Boreal Environ Res 29:1-55
Bartemucci P, Coates KD, Harper KA, Wright EF (2002) Gap disturbances in northern old-growth forests of British Columbia, Canada. J Veg Sci 13:685-696
Bauhus J, Puettmann C, Messier C (2009) Silviculture for old-growth attributes. For Ecol Manag 258:525-537
Bélisle AC, Gauthier S, Cyr D, Bergeron Y, Morin H (2011) Fire regime and old-growth boreal forests in Central Quebec, Canada: an ecosystem management perspective. Silva Fenn 45:889-908
Berg Å, Ehnström B, Gustafsson L, Hallingbäck T, Jonsell M, Weslien J (1994) Threatened plant, animal and fungus species in Swedish forests: distribution and habitat associations. Cons Biol 8(3):718-731
Bergeron Y, Fenton N (2012) Boreal forests of eastern Canada revisited: old growth, nonfire disturbances, forest succession and biodiversity. Botany 90:509-523
Bergeron Y, Gauthier S, Flannigan M, Kafka V (2004) Fire regimes at the transition between mixed wood and coniferous boreal forest in northwestern Quebec. Ecology 85:1916-1932
Bergeron Y, Gauthier S, Kafka V, Lefort P, Lesieur D (2001) Natural fire frequency for the eastern Canadian boreal forest: consequences for sustainable forestry. Can J For Res 31:384-391
Bergeron Y, Harvey B, Leduc A, Gauthier S (1999) Forest management guidelines based on natural disturbance dynamics: stand- and forest-level considerations. For Chron 75:55-61
Bergeron Y, Leduc A, Harvey B, Gauthier S (2002) Natural fire regime: a guide for sustainable management of the Canadian boreal forest. Silva Fenn 36(1):81-95
Blarquez O, Carcaillet C, Frejaville T, Bergeron Y (2014) Disentangling the trajectories of alpha, beta and gamma plant diversity of north American boreal ecoregions since 15, 500 years. Front Ecol Evol 2:1-8
Boucher D, Gauthier S, Noël J, Greene DF, Bergeron Y (2014). Salvage logging affects early post-fire tree composition in Canadian boreal forest. For Ecol Manage 325:118-127
Boulanger Y, Gauthier S, Burton PJ (2014) A refinement of models projecting future Canadian fire regimes using homogeneous fire regime zones. Can J For Res 44(4):365-376. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2013-0372
Boulanger Y, Sirois L (2007) Postfire succession of saproxylic arthropods, with emphasis on Coleoptera, in the north boreal black spruce forest of Québec. Env Entomol 36:128-141
Bradshaw CJA, Warkentin IG (2015) Global estimates of boreal forest carbon stocks and flux. Glob Planet Change 128:24-30
Bradshaw CJA, Warkentin IG, Sodhi NS (2009) Urgent preservation of boreal carbon stocks and biodiversity. Trends Ecol Evol 24:541-548
Brandt JP, Flannigan MD, Maynard DG, Thompson ID, Volney WJA (2013) An introduction to Canada's boreal zone: ecosystem processes, health, sustainability, and environmental issues. Environ Rev 21(4):207-226
Burton PJ, Kneeshaw DD, Coates KD (1999) Managing forest harvesting to maintain old growth in boreal and sub-boreal forests. For Chron 75:623-631
Burton PJ, Macdonald SE (2011) The restorative imperative: challenges, objectives and approaches to restoring naturalness in forests. Silva Fenn 45(5):843-863
Cyr D, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y (2007) Scale-dependent determinants of heterogeneity in fire frequency in a coniferous boreal forest of eastern Canada. Landscape Ecol 22(9):1325-1339.
Carcaillet C, Richard PJH, Bergeron Y, Fréchette B, Ali AA (2010) Resilience of the boreal forest in response to Holocene fire-frequency changes assessed by pollen diversity and population dynamics. Int J Wildland Fire 19(8):1026-1039
Carleton TJ, Maclellan P (1994) Woody vegetation responses to fire versus clear-cutting logging: a comparative survey in the Central Canadian boreal forest. Écoscience 1(2):141-152
Cyr D, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y (2007) Scale-dependent determinants of heterogeneity in fire frequency in a coniferous boreal forest of eastern Canada. Landscape Ecol 22(9):1325-1339
Cyr DS, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y, Carcaillet C (2009) Forest management is driving the eastern north American 1 boreal forest outside its natural range of variability. Front Ecol Environ 7(10):519-524. https://doi.org/10.1890/080088
Dukes JS, Pontius J, Orwig D, Garnas JR, Rodgers VL, Brazee N, Cooke B, Theoharides KA, Stange EE, Harrington R, Ehrenfeld J, Gurevitch J, Lerdau M, Stinson K, Wick R, Ayres M (2009) Responses of insect pests, pathogens, and invasive plant species to climate change in the forests of northeastern North America: what can we predict? Can J For Res 39(2):231-248. https://doi.org/10.1139/X08-171
EASAC (2017) Multi-functionality and sustainability in the European Union's forests. EASAC Policy Report 32, p 41
Esseen PA, Ehnström B, Ericson L, Sjöberg K (1997) Boreal forests. Ecol Bull 46:16-47
Fenton NJ, Bergeron Y (2008) Does time or habitat make old-growth forests species rich? Bryophyte richness in boreal Picea mariana forests. Biol Conserv 41(5):1389-1399
Flannigan MD, Krawchuk MA, de Groot WJ, Wotton M, Gowman LM (2009) Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire. Int J Wildland Fire 18(5):483-507
Flannigan MD, Logan KA, Amiro BD, Skinner WR, Stocks BJ (2005) Future area burned in Canada. Clim Chang 72:1-2): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-5935-y
Gauthier S, Bernier P, Burton PJ, Edwards J, Isaac K, Isabel N, Jayen K, Le Goff H, Nelson EA (2014) Climate change vulnerability and adaptation in the managed Canadian boreal forest. Environ Rev 22(3):256-285. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2013-0064
Gauthier S, Bernier P, Kuuluvainen T, Shvidenko AZ, Schepaschenko DG (2015a) Boreal forest health and global change. Science 349:819-822. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa9092
Gauthier S, Bernier PY, Boulanger Y, Guo XJ, Guindon L, Beaudoin A (2015b) Vulnerability of timber supply to projected changes in fire regime in Canada's managed forests. Can J For Res 45:1439-1447. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2015-0079
Girard F, Payette S, Gagnon R (2008) Rapid expansion of lichen woodlands within the closed-crown boreal forest zone over the last 50 years caused by stand disturbances in eastern Canada. J Biogeogr 35:529-537
Greene DF, Gauthier S, Noël J, Rousseau M, Bergeron Y (2006) A field experiment to determine the effect of post-fire salvage on seedbeds and tree regeneration. Front Ecol Environ 4:69-74
Groisman P, Shugart H, Kicklighter D, Henebry G, Tchebakova N, Maksyutov S, Monier E, Gutman G, Gulev S, Qi J, Prischepov A, Kukavskaya E, Porfiriev B, Shiklomanov A, Loboda T, Shiklomanov N, Nghiem S, Bergen K, Albrechtová J, Chen J, Shahgedanova M, Shvidenko A, Speranskaya N, Soja A, de Beurs K, Bylygina O, McCarty J, Zhuang Q, Zolina O (2017) Northern Eurasia Future Initiative (NEFI): facing the challenges and pathways of global change in the twenty-first century. Prog Earth Planetary Sci 4:41. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-017-0154-5
Gromtsev A (2002) Natural disturbance dynamics in the boreal forests of European Russia: a review. Silva Fenn 36:41-55
Guindon L, Bernier PY, Beaudoin A, Pouliot D, Villemaire P, Hall RJ, Latifovic R, St-Amant R (2014) Annual mapping of large forest disturbances across Canada's forests using 250 m MODIS imagery from 2000 to 2011. Can J For Res 44:1545-1554
Halme P, Allen KA, Aunins A, Bradshaw RHW, Brumelis G, Cada V, Clear JL, Eriksson A-M, Hannon G, Hyvärinen E, Ikauniece S, Iršėnaitė R, Jonsson BG, Junninen K, Kareksela S, Komonen A, Kotiaho JS, Kouki J, Kuuluvainen T, Mazziotta A, Mönkkönen M, Nyholm K, Olden A, Shorohova E, Strange N, Toivanen T, Vanha-Majamaa I, Wallenius T, Ylisirniö A-L, Zin E (2013) Challenges of ecological restoration: lessons from forests in northern Europe. Biol Conserv 167:248-256
Hannah L, Midgley G, Andelman S, Araújo M, Hughes G, Martinez-Meyer E, Williams P (2007) Protected area needs in a changing climate. Front Ecol Environ 5(3):131-138
Hanski I (2000) Extinction debt and species credit in boreal forests: modelling the consequences of different approaches to biodiversity conservation. Ann Zool Fenn 37:271-280
Jasinski JPP, Payette S (2005) The creation of alternative stable states in the southern boreal forest, Québec, Canada. Ecol Monogr 75:561-583
Josefsson T, Hörnberg G, Östlund L (2009) Long-term human impact and vegetation changes in a boreal forest reserve: implications for the use of protected areas as ecological references. Ecosystems 12(6):1017-1036
Kafka V, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y (2001) Fire impacts and crowning in the boreal forest: study of a large wildfire in western Quebec. Int J Wildl Fire 10:119-127
Kotiaho JS (2017) On effective biodiversity conservation, sustainaability of bioeconomy, and honesty of the Finnish forest policy. Ann Zool Fenn 54:13-25 https://doi.org/10.5735/086.054.0104. Accessed 21 May 2017
Kouki J, Löfman S, Martikainen P, Rouvinen S, Uotila A (2001) Forest fragmentation in Fennoscandia: linking habitat requirements of wood-associated threatened species to landscape and habitat changes. Scand J For Res (Suppl) 3:27-37
Kuuluvainen T (2009) Forest management and biodiversity conservation based on natural ecosystem dynamics in northern Europe: the complexity challenge. Ambio 38:309-315
Kuuluvainen T, Aakala T (2011) Natural forest dynamics in boreal Fennoscandia: a review and classification. Silva Fenn 45(5):823-841
Kuuluvainen T, Grenfell R (2012) Natural disturbance emulation in boreal forest ecosystem management: theories, strategies and a comparison with conventional even-aged management. Can J For Res 42:1185-1203
Kuuluvainen T, Tahvonen O, Aakala T (2012) Even-aged and uneven-aged forest management in boreal Fennoscandia: a review. Ambio 41(7):720-737
Langor DW, Cameron EK, McQuarrie CJK, McBeath A, McClay A, Peter B, Pybus M, Ramsfield T, Ryall K, Scarr T, Yemshanov D, DeMerchand I, Foottit R, Pohj GR (2014) Non-native species in Canada's boreal zone: diversity, impacts, and risk. Environ Rev 22:372-420
Leduc A, Bernier PY, Mansuy N, Raulier F, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y (2015) Using salvage logging and tolerance to risk to reduce the impact of forest fires on timber supply calculations. Can J For Res 45:480-486. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2014-0434
Lindner M, Maroschek M, Netherer S, Kremer A, Barbati A, Garcia-Gonzalo J, Seidl R, Delzon S, Corona P, Kolström M, Lexer MJ, Marchetti M (2010) Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. For Ecol Manag 259:698-709
Maynard DG, Paré D, Thiffault E, Lafleur B, Hogg KE, Kishchuk B (2014). How do natural disturbances and human activities affect soils and tree nutrition and growth in the Canadian boreal forest? Environ Rev 22(2):161-178
McCarthy J (2001) Gap dynamics of forest trees: a review with particular attention to boreal forests. Environ Rev 9:1-59
McKenney DW, Pedlar JH, Papadopol P, Hutchinson MF (2006) The development of 1901-2000 historical monthly climate models for Canada and the United States. Agric For Meteorol 138(1):69-81
Millar CI, Stephenson NL, Stephens SL (2007) Climate change and forests of the future: managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecol Appl 17:2145-2151
Moen J, Rist L, Bishop K, Chapin FS III, Ellison D, Kuuluvainen T, Petersson H, Puettmann KJ, Rayner J, Warkentin IG, Bradshaw CJA (2014) Eye on the taiga: removing global policy impediments to safeguard the boreal forest. Cons Lett 7(4):408-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12098
Nappi A, Drapeau P, Saint-Germain M, Angers VA (2010) Effect of fire severity on long-term occupancy of burned boreal conifer forests by saproxylic insects and wood-foraging birds. Int J Wildland Fire 19:500-511
Nappi A, Drapeau P, Savard JP (2004) Salvage logging after wildfire in the boreal forest: is it becoming a hot issue for wildlife? For Chron 80(1):67-74
Nguyen-Xuan T, Bergeron Y, Simard D, Fyles JW, Paré D (2000) The importance of forest floor disturbance in the early regeneration patterns of the boreal forest of western and Central Quebec: a wildfire versus logging comparison. Can J For Res 30:1353-1364
Nordén J, Penttilä R, Siitonen J, Tomppo E, Ovaskainen O (2013) Specialist species of wood-inhabiting fungi struggle while generalists thrive in fragmented boreal landscapes. J Ecol 101:701-712
Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J, Houghton R, Kauppi PE, Kurz WA, Phillips OL, Shvidenko A, Lewis SL, Canadell JG, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Pacala SW, McGuire AD, Piao S, Rautiainen A, Sitch S, Hayes D (2011) A large and persistent carbon sink in the world's forests. Science 333:988-994
Pedlar JH, McKenney DW, Aubin I, Beardmore T, Beaulieu J, Iverson L, O'Neill GA, Winder RS, Ste-Marie C (2012) Placing forestry in the assisted migration debate. BioScience 62(9):835-842
Pennanen J (2002) Forest age distribution under mixed-severity fire regimes - a simulation-based analysis for middle boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fenn 36:213-231
Peura M, Burgas D, Eyvindson K, Repo A, Mönkkönen M (2018) Continuous cover forestry is a cost-efficient tool to increase multifunctionality of boreal production forests in Fennoscandia. Biol Conserv 217:104-112
Price DT, Alfaro RI, Brown KJ, Flannigan MD, Fleming RA, Hogg EH, Girardin MP, Lakusta T, Johnson M, McKenney DW, Pedlar JH, Stratton T, Sturrock RN, Thompson ID, Trofymov JA, Venier LA (2013) Anticipating the consequences of climate change for Canada's boreal forest ecosystems. Environ Rev 21(4):322-365
Pukkala T, Lähde E, Laiho O, Salo K, Hotanen J-P (2011) A multifunctional comparison of even-aged and uneven-aged forest management in a boreal region. Can J For Res 41:851-862. https://doi.org/10.1139/X11-009
Pukkala T, Laiho O, Lähde E (2016) Continuous cover management reduces wind damage. For Ecol Manag 372:120-127
Raulier F, Le Goff H, Gauthier S, Rapanoela R, Bergeron Y (2013) Introducing two indicators for fire risk consideration in the management of boreal forests. Ecol Indic 24:451-461
Régnière J, St-Amant R, Duval P (2012) Predicting insect distributions under climate change from physiological responses: spruce budworm as an example. Biol Invasions 14:1571-1586
Saint-Germain M, Greene DF (2009) Salvage logging in the boreal and cordilleran forests of Canada: integrating industrial and ecological concerns in management plans. For Chron 85(1):120-134
Savage DW, Martell DL, Wotton BM (2010) Evaluation of two risk mitigation strategies for dealing with fire-related uncertainty in timber supply modelling. Can J For Res 40(6):1136-1154
Scheffer M, Hirota M, Holmgren M, van Nes EH, Chapin FS (2012) Thresholds for boreal biome transitions. Proc Nat Aca Sci USA 109:21384-21389
Schmiegelow FK, Stepnisky DP, Stambaugh CA, Koivula M (2006) Reconciling salvage logging of boreal forests with a natural-disturbance management model. Cons Biol 20(4):971-983
Shorohova E, Kneeshaw D, Kuuluvainen T, Gauthier S (2011) Variability and dynamics of old-growth forests in the circumboreal zone: implications for conservation, restoration and management. Silva Fenn 45:785-806
Shorohova E, Kuuluvainen T, Kangur A, Jogiste K (2009) Natural stand structures, disturbance regimes and successional dynamics in the Eurasian boreal forests: a review with special reference to Russian studies. Ann For Sci 66(2):201
Siitonen J (2001) Forest management, coarse woody debris and saproxylic organisms: Fennoscandian boreal forests as an example. Ecol Bull 49:11-41
Suffling, R, Smith, B, Molin, JD (1982). Estimating past forest age distributions and disturbance rates in north-western Ontario: a demographic approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 14(1), 45-56.
Swanson ME, Franklin JF, Beschta RL, Crisafulli CM, DellaSala DA, Hutto RL, Lindenmayer DB, Swanson FJ (2011) The forgotten stage of forest succession: early-successional ecosystems on forest sites. Front Ecol Environ 9(2):117-125
Tabor K, Williams JW (2010) Globally downscaled climate projections for assessing the conservation impacts of climate change. Ecol Appl 20:554-565
Venier LA, Thompson ID, Fleming R, Malcolm J, Aubin I, Trofymov JA, Langor D, Sturrock R, Patry C, Outerbridge RO, Holmes SB, Heussler S, De Grandpré L, Chen HYH, Bayne E, Arsenault A, Brandt JP (2014) Effects of natural resource development on the terrestrial biodiversity of Canadian boreal forests. Eviron Rev 22:457-490
Waldron K, Ruel J-C, Gauthier S (2013) Forest structural attributes after windthrow and consequences of salvage logging. For Ecol Manag 289:28-37
We thank Dominique Boucher and David Gervais for help in data collection and Stella Thompson for revision of the English language. This work was carried out in the framework of the EBOR-project funded by the 597 Academy of Finland (proj. no. 276255).
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.